{"id":912,"date":"2024-07-30T18:39:03","date_gmt":"2024-07-30T18:39:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/8-2-development-of-symbolic-art\/"},"modified":"2025-03-19T17:37:02","modified_gmt":"2025-03-19T17:37:02","slug":"8-2-development-of-symbolic-art","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/8-2-development-of-symbolic-art\/","title":{"raw":"8.2 Development of Symbolic Art","rendered":"8.2 Development of Symbolic Art"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"8.2-development-of-symbolic-art\">\r\n<h2>The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">\u201cShe was the real power behind the throne.\u201d We\u2019ve heard this before when we looked at the life of the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut. In Ravenna, <strong>Galla Placidia <\/strong>also led an extremely colorful life, though she felt no need to dress in a manly manner or be addressed as \u201cHis\u201d majesty. The daughter of Roman Emperor Theodosius, she was the half-sister of the Honorius Augustus (who had moved the Imperial residence of the Western Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna in 404). While she was living in Rome in 410 the city was sacked by Alaric and the Visigoths. She was taken hostage and is said to have become an early example of what we now call the Stockholm syndrome: she fell in love with her barbarian kidnapper, Alaric\u2019s successor, Athaulf. In 414 she married Athaulf and went into battle for his side. When Athaulf was assassinated, she was bought back by her half-brother, Honorius, with a payment of corn. In 416 she was forced to marry a Roman general named Constantius III, to whom she bore two children, Honoria and Valentinian. Through the complications of Roman politics, their son Valentinian III became emperor at age 6. You guessed it: she assumed the control of the empire, ruling in his stead as Galla Placidia Augusta from 425-437.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">This 4.5 gram gold <em>solidus<\/em> is dated to 421-450 [image 8.17]. Throughout this chapter you will be studying <strong>symbols<\/strong>, and this is a good place to do some careful looking. Symbols are the language of religion while numbers are the language of science.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1229\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"205\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1229\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17--300x281.jpg\" alt=\"A gold coin with a woman\u2019s bust and writing.\" width=\"205\" height=\"192\" \/> <strong>8.17<\/strong> Solidus of Galla Placidia Being Crowned by the Hand of God. 421-450, Altes Museum Berlin. 4.5 gram gold coin.<a href=\"#sdfootnote1sym\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Over her head, the hand of God holds either a crown, a nimbus (halo) or a wreath.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On her head, a pearl diadem (a jeweled headband used as a royal crown) with four tails or her hair is adorned with jewels.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On her neck, two pearl necklaces.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On her ears, earrings.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On her right shoulder, Chi-Rho monogram <img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image2-2.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"10.9500262467192px\" height=\"14.5079265091864px\" \/> (aka Cristogram).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Solidus of Galla Placidia Being Crowned by the Hand of God. 421-450, Altes Museum Berlin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Galla Placidia<a href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/a> was a devout <a class=\"rId11\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christianity\">Christian.<\/a> She was involved in the building and restoration of over 100 churches where pagan temples had once stood in Ravenna and around the surrounding countryside. She has been credited with the restoration and expansion of the basilica of <em>Saint Paul Outside the Walls<a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/a><\/em> and the <a class=\"rId12\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre\"><em>Church of the Holy Sepulcher<\/em><\/a>\u00a0in <a class=\"rId13\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerusalem\">Jerusalem.<\/a> She built <a class=\"rId14\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/San_Giovanni_Evangelista%2C_Ravenna\"><em>San Giovanni Evangelista <\/em>(St. John the Evangelist) in Ravenna<\/a> in grateful appreciation for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing the Aegean Sea.<a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/a> The dedicatory inscription reads \"Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea.\"<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Her intended mausoleum was originally attached as a side chapel to the basilica of <em>Santa<\/em> <em>Croce <\/em>(Holy Cross) which she also built [images 8.18 and 8.19]. The cruciform shapes of the main body and side chapel were intentionally styled in remembrance of St. Helena who was by this time famous for her discovery of the True Cross.<a href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/a> It has been speculated that Galla Placidia may, herself, have owned a relic of the True Cross.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"403\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image3-38.jpeg\" alt=\"A drawing of a reconstruction of Santa Croce. It is a basilica with a transept and stands behind the mausoleum.\" width=\"403\" height=\"245\" \/> <strong>8.18<\/strong> Reconstruction drawing showing the connection between the original church of Santa Croce in Ravenna, and its chapel - now known as the mausoleum of Galla Placidia - to the right.<a href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/a> Most of the church was demolished in 1602, separating the mausoleum from the Church of Santa Croce, to which for a thousand years or so it had been attached.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1231\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"249\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1231\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19-300x296.jpg\" alt=\"A ground-plan showing the placement of the church next to the mausoleum.\" width=\"249\" height=\"246\" \/> <strong>8.19<\/strong> Intended placement of sarcophagus for Galla Placidia. To her right and left are spaces (identified in red by this author) for Constantius III (her second husband) and either her son, Valentinian III, or her brother, Honorius.<a href=\"#sdfootnote7sym\"><sup>7<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Unfortunately for her story, she died in Rome, so it is unlikely she was buried in Ravenna. She was possibly buried in <em>St. Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/em>, although a ninth century legend had her buried in a side chapel in <em>San Vitale <\/em>in Ravenna and another thirteenth century legend had her entombed in one of the sarcophagi here.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"528\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image8-28.jpeg\" alt=\"A brick building with a central raised rectangle and radiating rooms. The rooms have arches that are filled in so no view of the interior is available from outside it.\" width=\"528\" height=\"321\" \/> <strong>8.20<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (425-450).<a href=\"#sdfootnote8sym\"><sup>8<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Constructed of reused Roman brick,<a href=\"#sdfootnote9sym\"><sup>9<\/sup> <\/a>the exterior of the <strong>Mausoleum of Galla Placidia <\/strong>is decorated only by blind arcades and looks rather bland [image 8.20]. Galla Placidia would possibly remind us, however, of the admonition spoken in the book of First Samuel 16:7: \u201cThe Lord sees not as man seeth; for man looketh on the outward appearance, but the Lord looketh on the heart\u201d (KJV).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Inside we find the lantern tower has concealed a dome in which is displayed a supernatural world with glimmering mosaics [image 8.21]. The <em>tesserae <\/em>are made of glass with gold leaf sandwiched in between the layers. If the exterior represented St. Augustine\u2019s Earthly City, the sparkle of the interior represents the Heavenly City.<a href=\"#sdfootnote10sym\"><sup>10<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image9-24.jpeg\" alt=\"A dome sparkling with gold stars and golden angels in the corners. In the center is a gold cross.\" width=\"800\" height=\"533\" \/> <strong>8.21<\/strong> The mystical world inside the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.<a href=\"#sdfootnote11sym\"><sup>11<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Come back down to earth. Look around us, at eye level [image 8.22]. We are seeing two zones: the lower one of marble panels and the upper one of mosaics. This is a visual distinction between the heavenly and the terrestrial worlds. Platonic thought is being mystically and symbolically suggested! The heavenly world is the realm of the spirit, of light, of invisible truth. The terrestrial world is the realm of the flesh, this visible world. We find ourselves in this world, but we can catch glimpses above of the truly \u201creal\u201d world, the world to which we would seek to ascend.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"203\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image10-22.jpeg\" alt=\"People walk through the mausoleum across a floor tiled in colored marble as they view the wonders above them.\" width=\"203\" height=\"305\" \/> <strong>8.22<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Interior.<a href=\"#sdfootnote12sym\"><sup>12<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">After one\u2019s amazement at the heavenly splendor, the visitor comes to realize that there are stories all around us.\u00a0These are not Roman stories of current events and real people, as we saw at the <em>Ara Pacis <\/em>or on <em>Trajan\u2019s Column<\/em>, but mystical stories. Under the influence of <strong>Mysticism <\/strong>the stories are symbolic, expressing religious feelings rather than empirical people in the present world.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Looking horizontally ahead, the first <strong>lunette<\/strong> be seen by the visitor is the story of St. Laurence of Rome [images 8.23 and 8.24].<a href=\"#sdfootnote13sym\"><sup>13<\/sup><\/a> According to tradition Laurence was called from Toledo in Spain to Rome by Pope Sixtus II in 257. After he arrived the Pope was summoned before the Roman authorities, who demanded that he turn over the treasures of the church. The Pope, of course, refused. As the Pope was being handed over for punishment, Laurence reportedly said, \u201cOh, my Father, I wish I could go with you.\u201d The Pope replied, \u201cDon\u2019t worry, my son. Your turn will come.\u201d Later Emperor Valerian\u2019s henchmen approached Laurence, who replied that if they came the next day he would provide the \u201ctreasures\u201d of the church. <em>What<\/em> <em>were<\/em> <em>the<\/em> <em>\u201ctreasures\u201d<\/em> <em>of <\/em><em>the<\/em> <em>church?<\/em> <em>(Is<\/em> <em>Christianity<\/em> <em>even<\/em> <em>legal in<\/em> <em>258<\/em> <em>CE?)<\/em> The \u201ctreasures\u201d were the poor, the blind, the lame, the homeless, the widows. The authorities were not amused and declared that he would pay for his insolent humor by being grilled on a gridiron. On August 10, 258 he was martyred. Laurence was reported to have exclaimed, as the torture ensued, \u201cLet my body be turned; one side is broiled enough. You may eat.\u201d<a href=\"#sdfootnote14sym\"><sup>14<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"210\"]<img style=\"color: #373d3f;font-weight: bold;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image11-21.jpeg\" alt=\"A mosaic depicting a man in a robe moving toward a fire with a cross over his shoulder. He carries a bible in his left hand. Above this is a mosaic depicting two men and two doves around a small fountain.\" width=\"210\" height=\"280\" \/> <strong>8.23<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. The Martyrdom of St. Laurence.<a href=\"#sdfootnote15sym\"><sup>15<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<em>It's<\/em> <em>quite a story, but what peasant can resist the account of a man who knowingly stood up to Roman authorities, who will gave his<\/em> <em>life,\u00a0<\/em><em>who promoted the dignity of being human? <\/em>This mosaic, possibly the oldest to decorate a sacred space, depicts a gridiron, which could have held cooking pots, placed over coals. Laurence, wearing \u201cdiscipleship\u201d white, advances without hesitation toward the grill. His story will be retold in many locations, including on the Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo and in sculpture at Chartres Cathedral. You may easily recognize him because he often has a gridiron (which often looks like a ladder) either placed beside him or he is actually lying on the attribute.<a href=\"#sdfootnote16sym\"><sup>16<\/sup><\/a> So influential was his story that our annual Perseid meteor shower was originally known as the \u201cTears of St. Lawrence.\u201d As an aside, because of the bookcase, depicted on the left side of this lunette, Laurence is the patron saint of librarians. In the bookcase are the books of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"601\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image12-17.jpeg\" alt=\"A close-up view of Laurence\u2019s sacrifice. A window above the gridiron is made of alabaster, creating the look of fire outside it.\" width=\"601\" height=\"366\" \/> <strong>8.24<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Barrel lunette showing the Martyrdom of St. Laurence.<a href=\"#sdfootnote17sym\"><sup>17<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Is this Renaissance painting of \u201cSt. Laurence Distributing the Riches of the Church\u201d [image 8.25] a fair interpretation of an event that happened 14 centuries earlier?<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"547\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image13-18.jpeg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting of Laurence giving precious objects to the poor.\" width=\"547\" height=\"441\" \/> <strong>8.25<\/strong> Bernardo Strozzi, Italian (1581-1644). St. Laurence Distributing the Riches of the Church. C. 1625. Saint Louis Art Museum.<a href=\"#sdfootnote18sym\"><sup>18<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">On the ground floor you were looking on a <strong>horizontal <\/strong>axis towards the lunettes; as you look into the dome you are looking on the <strong>vertical<\/strong> axis, ascending to the beauty of the heavenly world [image 8.26]. The dome still retains its original decorative program, with 8-pointed stars swirling in concentric circles around the symbol of ultimate sacrifice. <strong>Pendentives <\/strong>reach down like giant triangular vaults to make the transition from a square base to a circular dome. Like a renewed Garden of Eden, mosaics of running grape vines and Greek meanders link each of the barrel vaults of the cruciform plan.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"552\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image14-12.jpeg\" alt=\"A view of the sparling dome with its surrounding mosaics.\" width=\"552\" height=\"414\" \/> <strong>8.26<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Dome.<a href=\"#sdfootnote19sym\"><sup>19<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Within the quadrangular lantern tower are visual reminders of the four Gospels, which coincidentally reach to the four corners of the earth. Clockwise from the top left:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">A man (representing the book of Matthew, in which the genealogical record shows Jesus\u2019 humanity)<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">An ox (representing the book of Luke, which describes the nativity and Jesus\u2019 birth in a stable)<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">A lion (representing the book of Mark which promotes Jesus\u2019 royal dignity)<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">An eagle (representing the more mystical book of John).<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We were once facing St. Laurence, then with a 90<sup>o<\/sup> turn we saw the upright cross on the dome. In image 8.27 we have now turned once again to face the entrance door. <em>How do you represent a god you have never seen? <\/em>We have no likeness, no model, no description of what Christ looked like.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"446\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image15-11.jpeg\" alt=\"A close view of the dome and its position over the lunette of Laurence.\" width=\"446\" height=\"593\" \/> <strong>8.27<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Dome and the Good Shepherd.<a href=\"#sdfootnote20sym\"><sup>20<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">This is not an ordinary shepherd. <em>What<\/em> <em>symbols<\/em> <em>are<\/em> <em>used<\/em> <em>in<\/em> <em>this<\/em> <em>Roman<\/em> <em>mosaic<\/em> [image 8.28]<em>?<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Christ does not hold a shepherd\u2019s staff; instead, he is subordinate to the cross.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>He wears a imperial halo, a nimbus. (We will be seeing both the Emperor <a class=\"rId30\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Justinian\">Justinian<\/a> and the Empress <a class=\"rId31\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theodora_(wife_of_Justinian_I)\">Theodora<\/a> wearing halos when we visit the <a class=\"rId32\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basilica_of_San_Vitale\">Basilica of San Vitale<\/a> in a later lesson.<a href=\"#sdfootnote21sym\"><sup>21<\/sup><\/a>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As the \u201clight of the world,\u201d the halo and Christ\u2019s head fill the spot occupied by windows in the other three lunettes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>He is youthful and without a beard, as we saw in the catacomb images.<a href=\"#sdfootnote22sym\"><sup>22<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li>He is wearing an expensive looking gold tunic with vertical <em>clavi <\/em>stripes, as were worn by the figures on the baptisteries in Ravenna<a href=\"#sdfootnote23sym\"><sup>23<\/sup><\/a> and earlier on the Faiyum portraits from Egypt.<a href=\"#sdfootnote24sym\"><sup>24<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li>A <em>pallium <\/em>(Roman cloak) is draped over one shoulder and across his lap. Why is the <em>pallium <\/em>purple? Why was the <em>clavi<\/em> blue?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>He wears shoes! In the Greek theater gods could wear shoes; others went barefoot.<a href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\"><sup>25<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"716\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image16-8.jpeg\" alt=\"A shepherd with gold and purple clothing sits on a rock surrounded by sheep. He has a gold halo and holds a gold staff shaped like a cross at the top. He wears sandals.\" width=\"716\" height=\"423\" \/> <strong>8.28<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. The Good Shepherd (mosaic on barrel lunette above the entrance door).<a href=\"#sdfootnote26sym\"><sup>26<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>References:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId34\" href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/03\/Galla_placidia%2C_solido_del_422.JPG\">upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/03\/Galla_placidia%2C_solido_del_422.JPG<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2<\/a>. In Italian, \u201cci\u201d and \u201cce\u201d are pronounced like the \u201cce\u201d in \u201ccello.\u201d Phonetically, her name is pronounced g\u0103l\u00b4\u0259 pl\u0259s\u012cd\u00b4\u0113\u0259.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3<\/a>. See \u201cChapter 7, Constantine\u2019s Great Decisions.\u201d <em>Humanities:<\/em> <em>New Meaning from<\/em> <em>the Ancient<\/em> <em>World.<\/em> Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a>. Destroyed in World War II bombing of 1944 but rebuilt according to the original design.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Relics of Faith: Nicene Creed.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6<\/a>. From Corrado Ricci: <em>Ravenna.<\/em> English version printed in Bergamo in 1913, page 58. Public domain at https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ricci_-_Ravenna_-_Santa_Croce_(reconstruction).png<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote7anc\">7<\/a>. Sign in front of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Photo by the author, Kathleen J. Hartman, 2016. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote8anc\">8<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId35\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/87e2545b-84d3-42ea-8084-4f0188a09c0c\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/87e2545b-84d3-42ea-8084-4f0188a09c0c<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">9<\/a>. Ravenna had been a <em>municipium <\/em>of the Roman Republic since 89 BCE. Caesar Augustus built a port facility in Ravenna that could hold, repair, and provision 250 ships. For the next 300 years Ravenna would be Rome\u2019s main naval base for the eastern Mediterranean. There was plenty of used brick available.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote10anc\">10<\/a>. The Khan Academy has produced a glittering video at the Mausoleum. <a class=\"rId36\" href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/humanities\/medieval-world\/early-christian1\/v\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna\">https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/humanities\/medieval-<\/a> <a class=\"rId37\" href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/humanities\/medieval-world\/early-christian1\/v\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna\">world\/early-christian1\/v\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote11anc\">11<\/a>. Public domain at commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wide_angle_view_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia Ravenna_2016.jpg<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote12anc\">12<\/a>. Public domain at commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Interior_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia Ravenna_2016_(2).jpg<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote13anc\">13<\/a>. Other sources identify the saint in this lunette as the Spanish martyr Saint Vincent.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote14anc\">14<\/a>. The Legend of St. Laurence is fully recounted in the Medieval Sourcebook: The Golden Legend: Volume IV.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/sourcebooks.fordham.edu\/basis\/goldenlegend\/GoldenLegend-Volume4.asp\">Sourcebooks.fordham.edu\/basis\/goldenlegend\/GoldenLegend-<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/sourcebooks.fordham.edu\/basis\/goldenlegend\/GoldenLegend-Volume4.asp\">Volume4.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote15anc\">15<\/a>. Public domain at commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mosaik2_Mausoleum_Galla_Placidia.jpg<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote16anc\">16<\/a>. It is possible that this depiction inspired Dante\u2019s <em>Inferno.<\/em> The poet lived his final years in Ravenna and died here in 1321.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote17anc\">17<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId38\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f03814a4-287c-4be8-abd0-bbc48c222897\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f03814a4-287c-4be8-abd0-bbc48c222897<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote18anc\">18<\/a>. Photo by the author, Kathleen J. Hartman, at the St. Louis Art Museum, 2018. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote19anc\">19<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId39\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f2e9c168-b28c-4d6b-9677-ce4b2b6cf34f\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f2e9c168-b28c-4d6b-9677-ce4b2b6cf34f<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote20anc\">20<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId40\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/baea8826-caf4-4334-9fd9-284b869e3fd6\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/baea8826-caf4-4334-9fd9-284b869e3fd6<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote21anc\">21<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 8, Justinian, Master of Three Powers: San Vitale.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World.<\/em> Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote22anc\">22<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Christ as the Good Shepherd.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote23anc\">23<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 8, Orthodoxy vs. Heresy: Orthodox and Arian Baptisteries at Ravenna.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from<\/em> <em>the<\/em> <em>Ancient<\/em> <em>World.<\/em> Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote24anc\">24<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Anticipating Byzantine Culture.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Relics of Faith.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from<\/em> <em>the Ancient<\/em> <em>World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId41\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/4d20882b-a1ad-4186-96ec-d0ee4420388d\">https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/4d20882b-a1ad-4186-96ec-d0ee4420388d<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"8.2-development-of-symbolic-art\">\n<h2>The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">\u201cShe was the real power behind the throne.\u201d We\u2019ve heard this before when we looked at the life of the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut. In Ravenna, <strong>Galla Placidia <\/strong>also led an extremely colorful life, though she felt no need to dress in a manly manner or be addressed as \u201cHis\u201d majesty. The daughter of Roman Emperor Theodosius, she was the half-sister of the Honorius Augustus (who had moved the Imperial residence of the Western Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna in 404). While she was living in Rome in 410 the city was sacked by Alaric and the Visigoths. She was taken hostage and is said to have become an early example of what we now call the Stockholm syndrome: she fell in love with her barbarian kidnapper, Alaric\u2019s successor, Athaulf. In 414 she married Athaulf and went into battle for his side. When Athaulf was assassinated, she was bought back by her half-brother, Honorius, with a payment of corn. In 416 she was forced to marry a Roman general named Constantius III, to whom she bore two children, Honoria and Valentinian. Through the complications of Roman politics, their son Valentinian III became emperor at age 6. You guessed it: she assumed the control of the empire, ruling in his stead as Galla Placidia Augusta from 425-437.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">This 4.5 gram gold <em>solidus<\/em> is dated to 421-450 [image 8.17]. Throughout this chapter you will be studying <strong>symbols<\/strong>, and this is a good place to do some careful looking. Symbols are the language of religion while numbers are the language of science.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1229\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1229\" style=\"width: 205px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1229\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17--300x281.jpg\" alt=\"A gold coin with a woman\u2019s bust and writing.\" width=\"205\" height=\"192\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17--300x281.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17--65x61.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17--225x210.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17--350x327.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.17-.jpg 403w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 205px) 100vw, 205px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1229\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.17<\/strong> Solidus of Galla Placidia Being Crowned by the Hand of God. 421-450, Altes Museum Berlin. 4.5 gram gold coin.<a href=\"#sdfootnote1sym\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<ul>\n<li>Over her head, the hand of God holds either a crown, a nimbus (halo) or a wreath.<\/li>\n<li>On her head, a pearl diadem (a jeweled headband used as a royal crown) with four tails or her hair is adorned with jewels.<\/li>\n<li>On her neck, two pearl necklaces.<\/li>\n<li>On her ears, earrings.<\/li>\n<li>On her right shoulder, Chi-Rho monogram <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image2-2.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"10.9500262467192px\" height=\"14.5079265091864px\" \/> (aka Cristogram).<\/li>\n<li>Solidus of Galla Placidia Being Crowned by the Hand of God. 421-450, Altes Museum Berlin.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Galla Placidia<a href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/a> was a devout <a class=\"rId11\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christianity\">Christian.<\/a> She was involved in the building and restoration of over 100 churches where pagan temples had once stood in Ravenna and around the surrounding countryside. She has been credited with the restoration and expansion of the basilica of <em>Saint Paul Outside the Walls<a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/a><\/em> and the <a class=\"rId12\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre\"><em>Church of the Holy Sepulcher<\/em><\/a>\u00a0in <a class=\"rId13\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerusalem\">Jerusalem.<\/a> She built <a class=\"rId14\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/San_Giovanni_Evangelista%2C_Ravenna\"><em>San Giovanni Evangelista <\/em>(St. John the Evangelist) in Ravenna<\/a> in grateful appreciation for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing the Aegean Sea.<a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/a> The dedicatory inscription reads &#8220;Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Her intended mausoleum was originally attached as a side chapel to the basilica of <em>Santa<\/em> <em>Croce <\/em>(Holy Cross) which she also built [images 8.18 and 8.19]. The cruciform shapes of the main body and side chapel were intentionally styled in remembrance of St. Helena who was by this time famous for her discovery of the True Cross.<a href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/a> It has been speculated that Galla Placidia may, herself, have owned a relic of the True Cross.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 403px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image3-38.jpeg\" alt=\"A drawing of a reconstruction of Santa Croce. It is a basilica with a transept and stands behind the mausoleum.\" width=\"403\" height=\"245\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.18<\/strong> Reconstruction drawing showing the connection between the original church of Santa Croce in Ravenna, and its chapel &#8211; now known as the mausoleum of Galla Placidia &#8211; to the right.<a href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/a> Most of the church was demolished in 1602, separating the mausoleum from the Church of Santa Croce, to which for a thousand years or so it had been attached.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1231\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1231\" style=\"width: 249px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1231\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19-300x296.jpg\" alt=\"A ground-plan showing the placement of the church next to the mausoleum.\" width=\"249\" height=\"246\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19-300x296.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19-65x64.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19-225x222.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19-350x345.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/8.19.jpg 623w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 249px) 100vw, 249px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1231\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.19<\/strong> Intended placement of sarcophagus for Galla Placidia. To her right and left are spaces (identified in red by this author) for Constantius III (her second husband) and either her son, Valentinian III, or her brother, Honorius.<a href=\"#sdfootnote7sym\"><sup>7<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Unfortunately for her story, she died in Rome, so it is unlikely she was buried in Ravenna. She was possibly buried in <em>St. Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/em>, although a ninth century legend had her buried in a side chapel in <em>San Vitale <\/em>in Ravenna and another thirteenth century legend had her entombed in one of the sarcophagi here.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 528px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image8-28.jpeg\" alt=\"A brick building with a central raised rectangle and radiating rooms. The rooms have arches that are filled in so no view of the interior is available from outside it.\" width=\"528\" height=\"321\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.20<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (425-450).<a href=\"#sdfootnote8sym\"><sup>8<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Constructed of reused Roman brick,<a href=\"#sdfootnote9sym\"><sup>9<\/sup> <\/a>the exterior of the <strong>Mausoleum of Galla Placidia <\/strong>is decorated only by blind arcades and looks rather bland [image 8.20]. Galla Placidia would possibly remind us, however, of the admonition spoken in the book of First Samuel 16:7: \u201cThe Lord sees not as man seeth; for man looketh on the outward appearance, but the Lord looketh on the heart\u201d (KJV).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Inside we find the lantern tower has concealed a dome in which is displayed a supernatural world with glimmering mosaics [image 8.21]. The <em>tesserae <\/em>are made of glass with gold leaf sandwiched in between the layers. If the exterior represented St. Augustine\u2019s Earthly City, the sparkle of the interior represents the Heavenly City.<a href=\"#sdfootnote10sym\"><sup>10<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 800px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image9-24.jpeg\" alt=\"A dome sparkling with gold stars and golden angels in the corners. In the center is a gold cross.\" width=\"800\" height=\"533\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.21<\/strong> The mystical world inside the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.<a href=\"#sdfootnote11sym\"><sup>11<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Come back down to earth. Look around us, at eye level [image 8.22]. We are seeing two zones: the lower one of marble panels and the upper one of mosaics. This is a visual distinction between the heavenly and the terrestrial worlds. Platonic thought is being mystically and symbolically suggested! The heavenly world is the realm of the spirit, of light, of invisible truth. The terrestrial world is the realm of the flesh, this visible world. We find ourselves in this world, but we can catch glimpses above of the truly \u201creal\u201d world, the world to which we would seek to ascend.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 203px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image10-22.jpeg\" alt=\"People walk through the mausoleum across a floor tiled in colored marble as they view the wonders above them.\" width=\"203\" height=\"305\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.22<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Interior.<a href=\"#sdfootnote12sym\"><sup>12<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">After one\u2019s amazement at the heavenly splendor, the visitor comes to realize that there are stories all around us.\u00a0These are not Roman stories of current events and real people, as we saw at the <em>Ara Pacis <\/em>or on <em>Trajan\u2019s Column<\/em>, but mystical stories. Under the influence of <strong>Mysticism <\/strong>the stories are symbolic, expressing religious feelings rather than empirical people in the present world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Looking horizontally ahead, the first <strong>lunette<\/strong> be seen by the visitor is the story of St. Laurence of Rome [images 8.23 and 8.24].<a href=\"#sdfootnote13sym\"><sup>13<\/sup><\/a> According to tradition Laurence was called from Toledo in Spain to Rome by Pope Sixtus II in 257. After he arrived the Pope was summoned before the Roman authorities, who demanded that he turn over the treasures of the church. The Pope, of course, refused. As the Pope was being handed over for punishment, Laurence reportedly said, \u201cOh, my Father, I wish I could go with you.\u201d The Pope replied, \u201cDon\u2019t worry, my son. Your turn will come.\u201d Later Emperor Valerian\u2019s henchmen approached Laurence, who replied that if they came the next day he would provide the \u201ctreasures\u201d of the church. <em>What<\/em> <em>were<\/em> <em>the<\/em> <em>\u201ctreasures\u201d<\/em> <em>of <\/em><em>the<\/em> <em>church?<\/em> <em>(Is<\/em> <em>Christianity<\/em> <em>even<\/em> <em>legal in<\/em> <em>258<\/em> <em>CE?)<\/em> The \u201ctreasures\u201d were the poor, the blind, the lame, the homeless, the widows. The authorities were not amused and declared that he would pay for his insolent humor by being grilled on a gridiron. On August 10, 258 he was martyred. Laurence was reported to have exclaimed, as the torture ensued, \u201cLet my body be turned; one side is broiled enough. You may eat.\u201d<a href=\"#sdfootnote14sym\"><sup>14<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"color: #373d3f;font-weight: bold;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image11-21.jpeg\" alt=\"A mosaic depicting a man in a robe moving toward a fire with a cross over his shoulder. He carries a bible in his left hand. Above this is a mosaic depicting two men and two doves around a small fountain.\" width=\"210\" height=\"280\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.23<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. The Martyrdom of St. Laurence.<a href=\"#sdfootnote15sym\"><sup>15<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><em>It&#8217;s<\/em> <em>quite a story, but what peasant can resist the account of a man who knowingly stood up to Roman authorities, who will gave his<\/em> <em>life,\u00a0<\/em><em>who promoted the dignity of being human? <\/em>This mosaic, possibly the oldest to decorate a sacred space, depicts a gridiron, which could have held cooking pots, placed over coals. Laurence, wearing \u201cdiscipleship\u201d white, advances without hesitation toward the grill. His story will be retold in many locations, including on the Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo and in sculpture at Chartres Cathedral. You may easily recognize him because he often has a gridiron (which often looks like a ladder) either placed beside him or he is actually lying on the attribute.<a href=\"#sdfootnote16sym\"><sup>16<\/sup><\/a> So influential was his story that our annual Perseid meteor shower was originally known as the \u201cTears of St. Lawrence.\u201d As an aside, because of the bookcase, depicted on the left side of this lunette, Laurence is the patron saint of librarians. In the bookcase are the books of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 601px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image12-17.jpeg\" alt=\"A close-up view of Laurence\u2019s sacrifice. A window above the gridiron is made of alabaster, creating the look of fire outside it.\" width=\"601\" height=\"366\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.24<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Barrel lunette showing the Martyrdom of St. Laurence.<a href=\"#sdfootnote17sym\"><sup>17<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Is this Renaissance painting of \u201cSt. Laurence Distributing the Riches of the Church\u201d [image 8.25] a fair interpretation of an event that happened 14 centuries earlier?<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 547px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image13-18.jpeg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting of Laurence giving precious objects to the poor.\" width=\"547\" height=\"441\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.25<\/strong> Bernardo Strozzi, Italian (1581-1644). St. Laurence Distributing the Riches of the Church. C. 1625. Saint Louis Art Museum.<a href=\"#sdfootnote18sym\"><sup>18<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">On the ground floor you were looking on a <strong>horizontal <\/strong>axis towards the lunettes; as you look into the dome you are looking on the <strong>vertical<\/strong> axis, ascending to the beauty of the heavenly world [image 8.26]. The dome still retains its original decorative program, with 8-pointed stars swirling in concentric circles around the symbol of ultimate sacrifice. <strong>Pendentives <\/strong>reach down like giant triangular vaults to make the transition from a square base to a circular dome. Like a renewed Garden of Eden, mosaics of running grape vines and Greek meanders link each of the barrel vaults of the cruciform plan.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 552px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image14-12.jpeg\" alt=\"A view of the sparling dome with its surrounding mosaics.\" width=\"552\" height=\"414\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.26<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Dome.<a href=\"#sdfootnote19sym\"><sup>19<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Within the quadrangular lantern tower are visual reminders of the four Gospels, which coincidentally reach to the four corners of the earth. Clockwise from the top left:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p class=\"indent\">A man (representing the book of Matthew, in which the genealogical record shows Jesus\u2019 humanity)<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"indent\">An ox (representing the book of Luke, which describes the nativity and Jesus\u2019 birth in a stable)<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"indent\">A lion (representing the book of Mark which promotes Jesus\u2019 royal dignity)<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"indent\">An eagle (representing the more mystical book of John).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We were once facing St. Laurence, then with a 90<sup>o<\/sup> turn we saw the upright cross on the dome. In image 8.27 we have now turned once again to face the entrance door. <em>How do you represent a god you have never seen? <\/em>We have no likeness, no model, no description of what Christ looked like.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 446px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image15-11.jpeg\" alt=\"A close view of the dome and its position over the lunette of Laurence.\" width=\"446\" height=\"593\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.27<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Dome and the Good Shepherd.<a href=\"#sdfootnote20sym\"><sup>20<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">This is not an ordinary shepherd. <em>What<\/em> <em>symbols<\/em> <em>are<\/em> <em>used<\/em> <em>in<\/em> <em>this<\/em> <em>Roman<\/em> <em>mosaic<\/em> [image 8.28]<em>?<\/em><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Christ does not hold a shepherd\u2019s staff; instead, he is subordinate to the cross.<\/li>\n<li>He wears a imperial halo, a nimbus. (We will be seeing both the Emperor <a class=\"rId30\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Justinian\">Justinian<\/a> and the Empress <a class=\"rId31\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theodora_(wife_of_Justinian_I)\">Theodora<\/a> wearing halos when we visit the <a class=\"rId32\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basilica_of_San_Vitale\">Basilica of San Vitale<\/a> in a later lesson.<a href=\"#sdfootnote21sym\"><sup>21<\/sup><\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>As the \u201clight of the world,\u201d the halo and Christ\u2019s head fill the spot occupied by windows in the other three lunettes.<\/li>\n<li>He is youthful and without a beard, as we saw in the catacomb images.<a href=\"#sdfootnote22sym\"><sup>22<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>He is wearing an expensive looking gold tunic with vertical <em>clavi <\/em>stripes, as were worn by the figures on the baptisteries in Ravenna<a href=\"#sdfootnote23sym\"><sup>23<\/sup><\/a> and earlier on the Faiyum portraits from Egypt.<a href=\"#sdfootnote24sym\"><sup>24<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>A <em>pallium <\/em>(Roman cloak) is draped over one shoulder and across his lap. Why is the <em>pallium <\/em>purple? Why was the <em>clavi<\/em> blue?<\/li>\n<li>He wears shoes! In the Greek theater gods could wear shoes; others went barefoot.<a href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\"><sup>25<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure style=\"width: 716px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image16-8.jpeg\" alt=\"A shepherd with gold and purple clothing sits on a rock surrounded by sheep. He has a gold halo and holds a gold staff shaped like a cross at the top. He wears sandals.\" width=\"716\" height=\"423\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>8.28<\/strong> Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. The Good Shepherd (mosaic on barrel lunette above the entrance door).<a href=\"#sdfootnote26sym\"><sup>26<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>References:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId34\" href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/03\/Galla_placidia%2C_solido_del_422.JPG\">upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/03\/Galla_placidia%2C_solido_del_422.JPG<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2<\/a>. In Italian, \u201cci\u201d and \u201cce\u201d are pronounced like the \u201cce\u201d in \u201ccello.\u201d Phonetically, her name is pronounced g\u0103l\u00b4\u0259 pl\u0259s\u012cd\u00b4\u0113\u0259.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3<\/a>. See \u201cChapter 7, Constantine\u2019s Great Decisions.\u201d <em>Humanities:<\/em> <em>New Meaning from<\/em> <em>the Ancient<\/em> <em>World.<\/em> Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a>. Destroyed in World War II bombing of 1944 but rebuilt according to the original design.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Relics of Faith: Nicene Creed.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6<\/a>. From Corrado Ricci: <em>Ravenna.<\/em> English version printed in Bergamo in 1913, page 58. Public domain at https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ricci_-_Ravenna_-_Santa_Croce_(reconstruction).png<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote7anc\">7<\/a>. Sign in front of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Photo by the author, Kathleen J. Hartman, 2016. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote8anc\">8<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId35\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/87e2545b-84d3-42ea-8084-4f0188a09c0c\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/87e2545b-84d3-42ea-8084-4f0188a09c0c<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">9<\/a>. Ravenna had been a <em>municipium <\/em>of the Roman Republic since 89 BCE. Caesar Augustus built a port facility in Ravenna that could hold, repair, and provision 250 ships. For the next 300 years Ravenna would be Rome\u2019s main naval base for the eastern Mediterranean. There was plenty of used brick available.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote10anc\">10<\/a>. The Khan Academy has produced a glittering video at the Mausoleum. <a class=\"rId36\" href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/humanities\/medieval-world\/early-christian1\/v\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna\">https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/humanities\/medieval-<\/a> <a class=\"rId37\" href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/humanities\/medieval-world\/early-christian1\/v\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna\">world\/early-christian1\/v\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote11anc\">11<\/a>. Public domain at commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wide_angle_view_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia Ravenna_2016.jpg<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote12anc\">12<\/a>. Public domain at commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Interior_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia Ravenna_2016_(2).jpg<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote13anc\">13<\/a>. Other sources identify the saint in this lunette as the Spanish martyr Saint Vincent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote14anc\">14<\/a>. The Legend of St. Laurence is fully recounted in the Medieval Sourcebook: The Golden Legend: Volume IV.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/sourcebooks.fordham.edu\/basis\/goldenlegend\/GoldenLegend-Volume4.asp\">Sourcebooks.fordham.edu\/basis\/goldenlegend\/GoldenLegend-<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/sourcebooks.fordham.edu\/basis\/goldenlegend\/GoldenLegend-Volume4.asp\">Volume4.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote15anc\">15<\/a>. Public domain at commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mosaik2_Mausoleum_Galla_Placidia.jpg<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote16anc\">16<\/a>. It is possible that this depiction inspired Dante\u2019s <em>Inferno.<\/em> The poet lived his final years in Ravenna and died here in 1321.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote17anc\">17<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId38\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f03814a4-287c-4be8-abd0-bbc48c222897\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f03814a4-287c-4be8-abd0-bbc48c222897<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote18anc\">18<\/a>. Photo by the author, Kathleen J. Hartman, at the St. Louis Art Museum, 2018. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote19anc\">19<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId39\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f2e9c168-b28c-4d6b-9677-ce4b2b6cf34f\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/f2e9c168-b28c-4d6b-9677-ce4b2b6cf34f<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote20anc\">20<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId40\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/baea8826-caf4-4334-9fd9-284b869e3fd6\">search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/baea8826-caf4-4334-9fd9-284b869e3fd6<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote21anc\">21<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 8, Justinian, Master of Three Powers: San Vitale.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World.<\/em> Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote22anc\">22<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Christ as the Good Shepherd.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote23anc\">23<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 8, Orthodoxy vs. Heresy: Orthodox and Arian Baptisteries at Ravenna.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from<\/em> <em>the<\/em> <em>Ancient<\/em> <em>World.<\/em> Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote24anc\">24<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Anticipating Byzantine Culture.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from the Ancient World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a>. See Hartman, Kathleen J. \u201cChapter 7, Relics of Faith.\u201d <em>Humanities: New Meaning from<\/em> <em>the Ancient<\/em> <em>World. <\/em>Colorado Springs, CO: Pikes Peak Community College, 2020. CC BY-NC 4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a>. Public domain at <a class=\"rId41\" href=\"https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/4d20882b-a1ad-4186-96ec-d0ee4420388d\">https:\/\/search.creativecommons.org\/photos\/4d20882b-a1ad-4186-96ec-d0ee4420388d<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-912","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":399,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/912","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/912\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1610,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/912\/revisions\/1610"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/399"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/912\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=912"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=912"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=912"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=912"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}