{"id":828,"date":"2024-07-30T18:36:11","date_gmt":"2024-07-30T18:36:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/7-5-the-ambition-of-constantine\/"},"modified":"2025-03-19T16:04:16","modified_gmt":"2025-03-19T16:04:16","slug":"7-5-the-ambition-of-constantine","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/7-5-the-ambition-of-constantine\/","title":{"raw":"7.5 The Ambition of Constantine","rendered":"7.5 The Ambition of Constantine"},"content":{"raw":"
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Constantine was a dreamer and a visionary. Constantine imagined power, and when Diocletian and Maximian retired from their positions as joint Augusti (Emperors) of Rome in 305 CE Constantine saw the possibility of viewing his dreams in vivid Technicolor.<\/p>\r\n

Diocletian\u2019s arrangement for the rule of the Tetrarchs had been to avoid the entanglements of biological succession with a non-hereditary transfer of leadership. Upon the retirement or death of either of the two Augusti, the Caesars (subordinates) were to be advanced to the position of Emperor. But given the simultaneous retirement of both Augusti, the army, and ambitious sons, preferred the biological tradition. The primary contenders for the throne were Maxentius <\/strong>(son of former Augusti Maximian and the son-in-law of Caesar Galerius) and Constantine <\/strong>(son of the Caesar Constantius I Chlorus<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n

Constantine\u2019s ambition was interpreted in this ninth century manuscript illumination [image 7.23]. On the evening of October 27, 312 his army was camped on the banks of the Tiber River on the outskirts of Rome and preparing to march against the army of Augustus Maxentius. According to tradition Constantine and every man under his command saw a cross of light shining in the sky. In a vision that would become crucial to subsequent European history, Christ appeared holding a flaming cross and proclaiming \u201cIn hoc signo vinces\u201d (\u201cIn this sign you shall conquer\u201d). Constantine had no idea of the meaning of the unfamiliar emblem; he was not a Christian, though there were likely some Christians among his advisers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"703\"]\"Manuscript 7.23<\/strong> The Dream of Constantine, Homilies of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus. 879 \u2013 882, Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale de France. Paris, France.1<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"218\"]\"Shield 7.24<\/strong> Symbol of Chi Rho as held by Justinian\u2019s soldiers. C. 547, Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna.2<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWaste no time! Constantine ordered the battle shields inscribed with the flaming cross, an insignia that resembled the Greek letters Chi <\/em>(X<\/strong>) and Rho <\/em>(P<\/strong>) [images 7.24 and 7.25].<\/em> What<\/em> could<\/em> \"image\"<\/em> possibly<\/em> mean?<\/em> The monogram could have been an abbreviation for the Greek \u201cXP<\/strong>ICTOC\u201d which means Christos <\/em>or the Messiah, a great and powerful figure who would overthrow the enemy. Or, it could have been a compression of the Greek word \u201cXP<\/strong>ECTOC\u201d which translates as Chrestos <\/em>or auspicious. Or, it could have been a symbol of power, similar to the scepter and shepherd\u2019s crook held by the pharaoh. Or, invert the sequence and it could have been a signal for P_X<\/strong>, peace!\r\n

Whatever the \u201creal\u201d meaning of the insignia, on the next day, October 28, 312, under that sign, Constantine marched against Maximian and won the Battle of Milvian Bridge<\/strong>. Although no one realized it at the time, this battle was a turning point that marked the end of the old Roman Imperial system and the beginning of the Byzantine<\/strong> Empire<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"368\"]\"A 7.25<\/strong> The Battle of Milvian Bridge, Homilies of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus.3<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Seven months later, on June 15, 313<\/strong>, Constantine acknowledged the assistance he assumed he had received from the divine Christos <\/em>with the Edict of<\/strong> Milan<\/strong>. With this declaration he decriminalized Christianity only 10 years after Diocletian had launched the \u201cfinal suppression.\u201d While Constantine did not mandate Christianity (that would not occur until the reign of Theodosius, 392-395), the Edict did grant the right of religious choice and the restoration of property that had been confiscated.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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EDICT OF MILAN, 313 CE<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

\u201cWith sound and most upright reasoning. . . we resolved that authority be refused to no one to follow and choose the observance or form of worship that Christians use, and that authority be granted to each one to give his mind to that form of worship which he deems suitable to himself, to the intent that the Divinity. . . may in all things afford us his wonted care and generosity.\u201d1<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

The ninth century manuscript illuminations to which we have been referring are together on a single page from a codex known as the Homilies<\/em> of<\/em> Saint<\/em> Gregory<\/em> of<\/em> Nazianzus.<\/em> The tempera on parchment illumination is quite large, measuring 41 cm high (16.5 \u201c) by 30.5 cm wide (12.5\u201d). On the next page [image 7.27] it is reproduced as large as this program allows, but even so it is undersized. The story of Constantine is laid out in three registers. The bottom section [image 7.26] tells of his mother\u2019s pilgrimage <\/strong>to the Holy Land in 326-328. Like any good traveler, St. Helena brought home souvenirs, including shiploads of relics, some tubs of soil from Calvary, the stairs which Christ was believed to have climbed in the palace of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem and most famously, slivers from the True Cross! It was her fascination with relics, which was shared by her son, Constantine, that introduced the \u201ccult of relics\u201d <\/strong>to the Christian church.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"677\"]\"A 7.26<\/strong> Pilgrimage of St. Helena, Homilies of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus.4<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"675\"]\"Manuscript 7.27<\/strong> Manuscript from the Homilies of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus. 879 \u2013 820, Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale de France. Paris, France.5<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

In Rome, \u201cvirtue\u201d was defined as manliness, courage and victory in war; these qualities frequently led to fame, wealth and power. Constantine had exemplified his virtue in the 312 Battle of Milvian Bridge, and the proper way to celebrate was with the Roman equivalent to a billboard advertisement, the triumphal arch<\/strong>. In Rome alone there are about 50 of these advertisements. Look around the area in which the Arch of Constantine <\/strong>[image 7.28] was constructed. What does the placement of this arch suggest about Constantine\u2019s piety toward the Roman Empire?<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"358\"]\"A 7.28<\/strong> Arch of Constantine, south face. 315 CE, Rome, Italy.6<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

When we walk around to the north face [image 7.29] of this 69\u2019 high monument we see symbols that clearly reveal a man who wanted to be known as the \u201cRestorer of Roman Glory.\u201d Trajan\u2019s conquest of Dacia (Germany) was celebrated inside the central doorway. The medallions on the second story were spolia<\/em> from a monument to Hadrian, who was also frustrated by the Daciens. On the attic story at the upper right was a depiction of another master of those troublesome Daciens, Marcus Aurelius. Constantine\u2019s association with the emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius suggested that, despite sporadic attacks by barbarians, all was well in Rome. \u201cYou can look to me as the Pater<\/em> Patriae<\/em>.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"633\"]\"A 7.29<\/strong> Arch of Constantine, north face. 315 CE, Rome, Italy.7<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"651\"]\"A 7.30<\/strong> Diagram of the Arch of Constantine showing architectural features and spolia. 312-315 CE, Rome, Italy.8<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

There are some divine images on the four supporting columns [images 7.31-7.34], but the arch was not made to promote Constantine as the first Christian emperor, nor is there is any reference to the intervention of a Christian God on Constantine\u2019s side. The huge inscription refers merely to the help of divinitas,<\/em> but nothing more precise. While original to the arch, the winged divine images are not intended as portrayals of God\u2019s angels. Instead, they remind us of the Assyrian Blessing Genius <\/em>at the gate of the city of Khorsabad [image 7.35] or the Greek Victory Untying Her Sandal <\/em>at the Athenian Temple of Athene Nike [image 7.36]. Certainly the inclusion of references to the persecutor Marcus Aurelius was not intended to be complimentary to Christians.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"199\"]\"A 7.31<\/strong> Winged Victories and subjugated barbarians on the Arch of Constantine, north face. First plinth.9<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"202\"]\"A 7.32<\/strong> Second plinth.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"195\"]\"A 7.33<\/strong> Third plinth.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_810\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"187\"]\"A 7.34<\/strong> Fourth plinth.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1198\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"216\"]\"A 7.35<\/strong> Assyrian Blessing Genius. 722-705 BCE, Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris, France.10<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1199\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"166\"]\"A 7.36<\/strong> Nike with the Sandal. C. 420-410 BCE, relief from the Temple of Athena Nike, Athens, Greece.11<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n

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\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 The really surprising feature of this monument is to be seen on the 3\u2019 4\u201d high horizontal frieze under the medallions [image 7.37]. Here we are convinced of the developing Byzantine cultural values of Authoritarianism and Idealism. Though Constantine\u2019s head has been broken off (perhaps by some hoodlum in a Roman riot), he is without a doubt formally depicted, in a divine frontal pose, on the speaker\u2019s platform between forward-facing Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. From this position he distributes wisdom, justice, and largess to the Roman people. The composition has no spatial depth; there are no oblique lines or foreshortening. Neither do the citizens show independent movement; they are not individualized; their heads are in idealistic isocephalic <\/em>unity and they are lined up like puppets on a string. Each turns in adoring worship of the emperor. They are clearly secondary to the empire to which they belong.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"799\"]\"A 7.37<\/strong> Oration of Constantine frieze on the Arch of Constantine, north face, left side. 315 CE, Rome, Italy.12<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Compare the proportions and spatial depth to earlier processions on both the Parthenon [image 7.38] and the Ara Pacis [image 7.39].<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"555\"]\"Now 7.38<\/strong> Parthenon, East frieze. C. 445\u2013435 BCE, Athens, Greece.13<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"337\"]\"Roman 7.39<\/strong> Ara Pacis detail of the south frieze showing the procession of the Imperial family, with Agrippa and Livia on the left. 13 - 9 BCE, Rome, Italy.14<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n

\r\n\r\nThe 40\u201d reliefs [images 7.40 and 7.41] above the frieze give us a comparison view of the citizens and confirm our suspicions. The <\/span>spolia <\/em>roundels from the monument to Hadrian were rechiseled with the features of Constantine, but the original, older and more Classical proportions are still evident. Compared to the earlier reliefs, the citizens depicted in the frieze appear to belong to a different race altogether. The contrapposto stance is gone; their forms are insubstantial and generalized; their humanity and dignity have been lost. True beauty now lies in a balanced and orderly society as expressed in the symbolic function of the sculpture. With an authoritarian attitude, the Kingdom has come; the Rule of Caesar is now the Rule of God.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1040\"]\"Two 7.40<\/strong> Arch of Constantine reliefs.15<\/sup><\/a>\"Two[\/caption]\r\n\r\n7.41<\/strong> Two reliefs from the Arch of Constantine: left: roundel showing Sacrifice to Apollo, era of Hadrian, c. 117-138 CE; right: detail, Distribution of Largesse, era of Constantine, 312-315.16<\/sup><\/a>\r\n

Constantine returned to Rome on the 10th<\/sup> anniversary of his accession to the throne to dedicate this victory arch as well as a new basilica, which is today known as the Basilica Nova <\/strong>[images 7.42-7.44].17<\/sup><\/a> Although the basilica had been started as a Roman bath by Maxentius in 306, Constantine had it transformed into a civic building.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"193\"]\"Ruins 7.42<\/strong> Basilica Nova. C. 306-312 CE), Rome, Italy.18<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"281\"]\"Drawing 7.43<\/strong> Artist's conception of Basilica Nova.19<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

The original apse was on the north-west side (on the left) of this groin-vaulted nave, with the entrance to the south-east (on the right). To accommodate crowds Constantine added an additional entrance on the long side, making the building more similar to Trajan\u2019s Basilica<\/em> Ulpia<\/em>. Another apse was added across the hall [image 7.44].<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n

\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"527\"]\"A 7.44<\/strong> Plan of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine.20<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

It is speculated that the basilica was being constructed in honor of Maxentius, possibly with a statue of the augustus in the original apse. Constantine\u2019s new apse would dilute the focus, but perhaps that was not a strong enough statement. Whatever had been in the original niche, Constantine had it replaced with a 40\u2019 acrolithic (marble, wood and masonry core sheathed in bronze) seated statue of himself, the Colossal Statue<\/em><\/strong> of Constantine<\/em><\/strong> the<\/em><\/strong> Great<\/em><\/strong> [images 7.45]. The acrolithic technique is similar to the chryselephantine (gold and ivory) technique used by Phidias for both his sculpture of Zeus <\/em>in the Temple of Zeus in Olympia as well as his statue of Athene <\/em>in the Parthenon. Constantine was sure to have felt honored by the comparison! As a permanent lauratron, it was a lasting symbol of his presence and power.<\/p>\r\n

The bronze sections of the sculpture have disappeared over time, possibly to be repurposed for a military function.\u00a0The artist\u2019s conception of the full statue [image 7.45] is helpful, but even the marble parts that remain tell a remarkable story about how Constantine viewed himself. Today those parts are lined up in the Palazzo of the Musei Capitolini, Rome [image 7.46].<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"321\"]\"A 7.45<\/strong> Reconstruction of the Colossus.21<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"291\"]\"Remains 7.46<\/strong> Remains of the Colossal Statue of Constantine the Great. 312-315 CE, Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini.22<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Which<\/em> of<\/em> these<\/em> three<\/em> Emperors<\/em> do<\/em> you<\/em> think<\/em> might<\/em> have<\/em> been<\/em> known<\/em> as<\/em> \u201cthe<\/em> visionary\u201d?<\/em><\/p>\r\n

It\u2019s those eyes! It\u2019s that godlike gaze which has experienced the vision of the flaming cross! A tiny fleck of marble had been left in each of Constantine\u2019s eyes to represent the reflection of light in the transparent cornea.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"210\"]\"The 7.47<\/strong> Augustus of Prima Porta. C. 19 BCE, Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy.23<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"209\"]\"The 7.48<\/strong> Portrait head of Caracalla. C. 212 CE, Metropolitan Museum of Art.24<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"209\"]\"A 7.49<\/strong> Colossal statue of Constantine. 312-315, Musei Capitolini.25<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Constantine\u2019s portrait bust [image 7.49] depicts him in a rigidly frontal position with static, absolute, immobility. This is an idealistic portrayal: he is relatively youthful with an unlined face and clean shaven. There is a bit of individualism in his small mouth, massive jaw and nose, and carefully arranged hair which was not tousled like Augustus\u2019. Overall, however, his features were executed on a scale reserved for depictions of gods. His head is 8\u2019 6\u201d high, and those clear- seeing eyes, which are not looking at his subjects but towards the heavens, are one foot high!<\/p>\r\n

Constantine was not allying himself with the dour Tetrarchs of the Roman Empire [image 7.19]26<\/sup><\/a>, nor with terrifying, no-nonsense Caracalla [image 7.48] but with the serene Augustus [image 7.47]. Constantine\u2019s abstract and austere expression represented the sense of authoritarian power that was bolstered by his spiritual vision.<\/p>\r\n

This was a man of unimaginable power. His status was similar to that of the pharaoh Ramesses II [image 7.51].\u00a0Both were human, but in a colossal way. (The author\u2019s friend\u2019s hand was resting on Ramesses II\u2019s foot [image 7.50]. I couldn\u2019t resist the comparison and asked my husband to place his hand on Constantine\u2019s foot [image 7.52].)<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"236\"]\"A 7.50<\/strong> Colossal Statue of Ramesses II at Luxor Temple, Egypt.28<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"131\"]\"Full 7.51<\/strong> Ramesses II at Luxor Temple, Egypt (c. 1279-1213 BCE).29<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"257\"]\"A 7.52<\/strong> Colossal statue of Constantine the Great.27<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

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\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"324\"]\"The 7.53<\/strong> Colossal statue of Constantine.30<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne God\u2014\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nOne Christ\u2014\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nOne Baptism\u2014\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nOne Religion\u2014\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nOne Empire\u2014\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nOne Emperor.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nConstantine's \u201cOne Way\u201d hand [image 7.53] really spoke of his ambition: do whatever was necessary to achieve Oneness. So, we reflect back to the Edict of Milan. Why did he legalize the religion? Why deliberately antagonize the pagan sectors of society? <\/em>On first glance it would appear he had nothing to gain as only 5-8% of the population was Christian. But, there were four other factors to consider.\r\n
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  1. The number of Christians was growing, despite the persecution (or possibly in contempt of the persecution, in spite of the oppression). Others were impressed with the courage and devotion shown by Christians. Bystanders were impressed when some were willing to stay true to the faith even when faced with torture and death. Indeed, the \u201cCult of the Martyrs,\u201d characterized by violent death, was considered an appropriate initiation into the faith. As Tertullian had proclaimed in the third century, \u201cThe blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Persecution of the Christians was magnifying theological divisions. Instead of discussing the glories of Imperial Rome, the various factions were spending their energy on doctrinal controversy. A few of the items of debate included:\r\n