{"id":659,"date":"2024-07-25T19:35:31","date_gmt":"2024-07-25T19:35:31","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/6-5-roman-architecture-and-philosophy\/"},"modified":"2025-03-19T14:58:52","modified_gmt":"2025-03-19T14:58:52","slug":"6-5-roman-architecture-and-philosophy","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/6-5-roman-architecture-and-philosophy\/","title":{"raw":"6.5 Roman Architecture and Philosophy","rendered":"6.5 Roman Architecture and Philosophy"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n

The peace produced by the Pax Romana enabled Rome to focus on its greatest strength: architectural planning and public works. The insula and the domus served as private dwellings, but the emperors also built large practical facilities for Romans to gather together. There was no middle class but the millions of lower class Romans depended on government facilities and programs to survive. The government provided food distribution systems, recreation, entertainment, roads, bridges, police and fire protection, water, sanitation, and some of the first hospitals in the western world.<\/p>\r\n

A safe clean water supply was critical for the health and happiness of the city. Aqueducts were developed as part of city planning. Some aqueducts were built as early as the 4th<\/sup> century BCE. When Roman armies conquered new territories, one of the first things they did was to build clean and abundant water delivery systems. One example is the Pont du Gard which was constructed by Agrippa in 18-19 CE in Nimes France. It carried water more than 30 miles to the city using a system of gravity flow and a gradual decline over long distances. A fall of 6\u201d per 100\u2019 was best and detours were made to avoid a sudden drop.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1280\"]\"Three 6.38<\/strong> Pont du Gard, South France.1<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n

The bridge spans 900\u2019 of the river. Each large arch spans 82\u2019 and is made of uncemented blocks weighing more than two tons. Note image 6.38 which shows the stone projections built into the structure when the blocks were laid allowing the builders to secure scaffolding as they worked. A block and tackle was used to raise the stones the 160\u2019 to the top layer. The lower arches are 65\u2019 high and the upper arches are 28\u2019 high. The smaller arches are placed in groups of 3 over the larger arches, manifesting the engineer\u2019s sense for the aesthetic as well as the practical.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"233\"]\"Detail 6.39<\/strong> Stone projections at the Pont du Gard made for scaffolding.2<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n

The 4\u2019 water channel in the top is shaped with concrete and is covered by slabs of stone, so one could walk the full length of the aqueduct on top of the channel. This aqueduct supplied the city of Nimes with enough water for 100 gallons per day per person. The middle section could also be used as a foot bridge. Structures like this convinced people in the provinces that coming under Roman rule was to their advantage. Evidence of Roman aqueducts can also be seen in Spain, Greece, North African and Turkey.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"222\"]\"An 6.40<\/strong> Ancient water to refill modern bottles, somewhere in Rome.3<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Water from the aqueducts was used for public fountains and baths. The city of Rome had eleven aqueducts which brought water from as far as 57 miles away. Visitors to Rome today flock to see the Trevi Fountain which is supplied with water by the Aqua Virgo, constructed by Agrippa in 19 CE and they can fill their plastic water bottles with water from the ancient water system.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"497\"]\"A 6.41<\/strong> Water for the Trevi Fountain comes from an aqueduct built in 19 CE.4<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Another major destination for all of the water brought into the cities was to supply the public baths. Only the very wealthy had private baths, but there were more than 800 public baths located conveniently throughout the city. The Baths of Caracalla, built in 215 CE are a good example.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"366\"]\"A 6.42<\/strong> Plan of the Baths of Caracalla.5<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"307\"]\"A 6.43<\/strong> Drawing of the Thermae, Baths of Caracalla.6<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

An important thing to notice in this drawing of the thermae, or Baths of Caracalla is the enclosure of a large area of interior space. This is a different way to think of space. The Greeks built their edifices to be seen as a backdrop for their ceremonies. The Romans built to enclose space for human use. We will notice this same way of thinking in the Pantheon and the Coliseum. The bath was built in 215 CE and is 750\u2019 by 350\u2019 with symmetrical placement of the pools. There are pools of different water temperatures, steam baths, dressing rooms, lecture halls, and exercise rooms. Slaves were available to scrape oil from the body with a strigil to remove the sweat and dirt from the body before bathing. There were different assigned hours of the day for men and women to use the baths and masseurs were available to soothe muscles and depilitators to pluck unwanted hair from the body. Other buildings in the area were shops, restaurants, and libraries. The subterranean corridors were wide enough for vehicles, storerooms, heating chambers, and housing for the slaves and stokers who kept the water flowing. A heating system circulated hot air through tubes and hollow bricks beneath the floors and sometimes in the ceiling vaults. The baths were created at state expense and for less than a penny a guest could stay all day. To the Romans the baths were an indispensable part of civilization and an important way to keep the masses happy.<\/p>\r\n

Romans architects were able to build these large enclosed spaces because of their use of arches and vaults. The use of the vault was known in earlier civilizations, but it was Roman ingenuity that really developed it. One of the major benefits of arches and vaults is that more light can be incorporated into interior spaces. See image 6.44 which shows a simple arch. Note the keystone at the top of the arch, and note that the stress or weight is thrust down either side of the arch allowing the weight to be distributed evenly. See the image of the Basilica 6.45 that depicts a several short barrel vaults, which are really just simple vaults lined up together. In the barrel vault the edges of the half cylinder rest directly on the walls which must either be thick enough to support the weight or must be reinforced with buttresses. When we talk about Romanesque architecture we will get back to this discussion of arches and vaults.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"220\"]\"A 6.44<\/strong> Simple Arch- CC BY SA 2.5.7<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"263\"]\"Ruins 6.45<\/strong> Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, 308-312 C.E., Roman Forum.8<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

The other important tool used by the Romans was their development of the use of concrete. Romans were masters of the use of this building material. Concrete is made of aggregate which can be broken pieces of brick, small rocks, and volcanic dust mixed with lime and water. The addition of volcanic ash made the concrete slow drying and strong.<\/p>\r\n

Excavations today show that many of the stones cracked but the concrete did not. Romans mined a special volcanic dust called pozzalona and used it as the binder. The only reason modern concrete stronger than Roman concrete is because we use metal bars to reinforce it. Romans also discovered that they could pour concrete in underwater harbor structures and it would set and even become stronger. The exterior face of their concrete structures was often covered with marble casing, stucco, or plaster because they liked the look of it better than the look of a concrete surface.<\/p>\r\n

Large public gathering places are a hallmark of the Roman Empire. Many of the emperors created markets for the population to sell goods to each other. One example is Trajan\u2019s Market, which might be called the world\u2019s oldest shopping mall. It is a six-story market and public area used for shops, offices, and open stalls. They sold a huge variety of food, clothing and other everyday goods as well as silk, spices, ivory and jewelry imported from around the empire. The markets were run by the lower classes and the slaves since the upper class was theoretically not allowed to make money selling goods.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"688\"]\"Ruins 6.46<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s Market, Rome, Italy.9<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"336\"]\"A 6.47<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s Column, Trajan\u2019s Market, Rome.10<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"337\"]\"A 6.48<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s Column Detail.11<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Roman emperors sought multiple ways to leave their mark on Rome and other cities in the empire. Trajan, for instance, erected a 128 foot column in the market between the library of the east and the library of the west. Trajan\u2019s Column was carved and installed between 106 and 113 BCE and was created to commemorate his victory over the Dacians. In it there are depicted 150 separate episodes of Trajan\u2019s life.<\/p>\r\n

The images on the column read like a continuous comic book and could be compared to the frieze on the Parthenon in Athens. Each new scene begins with a symbol, perhaps a tree, or a building or another picture of Trajan. From it we can see his soldiers, who were actually the construction crew, setting up camps, building bridges, and putting up the infrastructure that would support that army. In figure 6.48, note the large bearded man under the bridge. It is a personification of the god of the river Danube, supporting the bridge so Trajan\u2019s army can cross a reference to the belief that even the gods were helping Trajan win the war. The column\u2019s base is circled by a victory wreath and below that is a collection of defeated weapons and military armor indicating the victory over the defeated Dacians and the strength of the army. This was not just about battles; it was also about the power of Rome to build lasting structures that elevated not only Trajan, but Rome.<\/p>\r\n

The citizens also liked to be entertained. Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheater because of the huge monument to Flavius erected there, the Coliseum was built by captured Jewish slaves and dedicated in 80 CE. It was built on land confiscated by Nero after the fire, but Vespasian cleverly returned the land to the use of the general population by creating a public place of entertainment. The building is shaped like two Greek amphitheaters facing each other around a central arena, the word for sand or beach, since the floor was covered with sand to soak up the blood. Most cities had an arena, and they can be seen all over the Roman world. Some of these structures are still in use today.<\/p>\r\n

The Coliseum in Rome was built to house public games at the expense of the emperor. They celebrated holidays of which there were many. For instance, in the year 41 CE there were 159 holidays, 93 devoted to games provided for the public. Its capacity was about 50,000 people and it provided an inexpensive place to get away from the squalor and noise of\u00a0the city for the day. Spectators were protected from the sun by a canvas awning held in place with poles and deployed by sailors pulling ropes to the beat of drums. Fast food was sold much like it is in our sports stadiums today. There were battles between gladiators, battles with animals, and even a real sea battle fought on the flooded floor on the 100 day opening ceremony which included sinking ships and drowning sailors. Remember from your studies of the Greeks that they did not want to show a death on stage. By contrast, Roman entertainment included the loss of thousands of lives in their games as a testament to their focus on realism rather than idealism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"710\"]\"A 6.49<\/strong> Drawing of the Coliseum as it looked when it was built, Hartman Grisar, 1911.12<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"621\"]\"Ruins 6.50<\/strong> Interior of the Coliseum 2019.13<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Technically the Coliseum is a masterful use of arches, vaults, and concrete. The edifice is 161\u2019 high, 620\u2019 long, and 500\u2019 wide. Access to the interior is through many numbered gates, and when you bought your ticket for a specific gate, it might\u00a0even come with a door prize of a slave. The many doors made it possible for large numbers of citizens to enter and exit quickly. Basement cages held the animals and people who were to perform or die that day. Tunnels led to trap doors which opened onto the floor of the arena. The decorative scheme of the outer wall is based on the Greek orders: Doric columns are on the bottom level, then Ionic columns, then Corinthian columns, and the top level is flat pilasters. Today much of what we see is the result of nearly two thousand years of damage caused by weather, earthquakes, and plunder. When times were hard, people of the middle ages and the Renaissance came to this building to remove blocks, panels, and metal coffers to reuse them in their homes and public buildings.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"531\"]\"An 6.51<\/strong> Coliseum numbered entrance door.14<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

One of the best preserved monuments to have survived from ancient Imperial Roman times is the Pantheon. Dedicated in 120 BCE, the original building was erected by Agrippa in the time of Augustus, but today we see the reconstructed version built by Hadrian. We know when it was built by the stamps made in the wet clay of the bricks used to make it. The Pantheon was built to house the statues of the planetary deities of Rome and the deified emperors. If you drew imaginary lines, the building would form a geometrically perfect sphere. It is 143\u2019 high, which is higher than St. Peter\u2019s Basilica at 140\u2019 and higher than the cathedral of Florence at 137\u2019. Hadrian loved to greet his guests here. It must have been very impressive then, as it is now.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"620\"]\"A 6.52<\/strong> Pantheon, Rome 120-124 BCE.15<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

The decorative pediment on the front porch of the Pantheon is supported by monolithic marble columns imported from Egypt and topped by Corinthian capitals, but the building does not rely on these columns for structural support. The interior of the building is a circular drum made of concrete which is 20\u2019 thick at the springing of the dome and 5\u2019 thick at the oculus in the ceiling. Wooden forms were built and the concrete was then added in a continuous pour process. So the dome is actually supported by the massive thickness of the concrete walls. This is another example of how Roman architects shaped the interior spaces for the use of many. The 27\u2019 oculus, Latin for eye, is open to the sky and was intended to represent the sun in the dome of heaven. It is the main source of light, and like the beam of a searchlight it moves around the interior of the building based on the weather and the movement of the sun. There is no covering over the oculus, so when it rains, water enters the dome and is funneled out through drains in the floor.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"336\"]\"Sunlight 6.53<\/strong> Oculus of the Pantheon, Rome Italy.16<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"435\"]\"An 6.54<\/strong> Exterior walls of the Pantheon.17<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

One other common structure seen in Rome and other parts of the Roman Empire was the triumphal arch. It is an ornamental version of a city gate that is moved to the city center to permit processions to enter the forum for celebration. A parade of slaves and booty passed through the arch in tribute to a victorious leader returning from a campaign. The Arch of Titus is an early example of this. It was built to honor Titus when he returned from conquering Jerusalem in 70 CE. There is a memorial inscription in the attic across the top to honor him and his accomplishments. The panels inside of the arch depict the sack of the city and show Roman soldiers carrying away the table of the showbread and the candelabrum from the Holy of Holies in the temple. Other soldiers carry the Arc of the Covenant and Roman military standards.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"505\"]\"A 6.55<\/strong> Arch of Titus, Rome, 70 CE.18<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"503\"]\"A 6.56<\/strong> Sacking of Jerusalem, Arch of Titus, Rome 70 CE.19<\/sup><\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Roman Philosophy<\/h2>\r\n

The philosophies adopted by Rome were as practical as their art and architecture. They focused on two main beliefs: Stoicism, which was founded by the Hellenistic philosopher Zeno of Zitium in 350 BCE, and Epicureanism, founded at about the same time by Epicurus, who was born on the aisle of Samos and studied under Plato. We know that the Romans conquered and absorbed everything Greek, including their art, architectural styles, theater, religious beliefs and their philosophy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

\r\n

Stoicism was expounded by Epictetus (55-135 CE), a Roman slave. For him philosophy was a way of life. These are some of the basic beliefs of the Stoics:<\/p>\r\n\r\n