{"id":343,"date":"2024-07-15T21:39:05","date_gmt":"2024-07-15T21:39:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/3-2-egypt-old-kingdom\/"},"modified":"2025-03-17T17:14:26","modified_gmt":"2025-03-17T17:14:26","slug":"3-2-egypt-old-kingdom","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/3-2-egypt-old-kingdom\/","title":{"raw":"3.2 Egypt-Old Kingdom","rendered":"3.2 Egypt-Old Kingdom"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"3.2-egypt-old-kingdom\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the <strong>Old Kingdom <\/strong>pharaohs built <strong>pyramids <\/strong>to emphasize their relationship to the divine and facilitate their ascent to the gods after their earthly deaths. Pyramids probably contained tombs for the pharaohs and their wives, but the wealth within the burial site was so tempting, that grave robbers made quick work of emptying the tombs and selling the contents. The earliest pyramids were built in stair-step layers. Some scholars believe they represent creation stories in which a mound of dry land appeared out of the marsh of the Nile. The stone steps enabled the pharaoh to ascend to the sun after his death. See Image 3.9.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote_sym\">1<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"463\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image1-23.jpeg\" alt=\"Image of the exterior of what may be the first stepped pyramid.\" width=\"463\" height=\"314\" \/> <strong>3.9<\/strong>\u00a0Saqqara Stepped Pyramid of Djoser, 2630-2611 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\">2<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPyramids were marvels of engineering, built on a massive scale to honor the pharaohs and usher them into the afterlife. Egyptian pyramid builders adhered to several rules:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Pyramids were built on the West side of the Nile, where sunset represented death, and the dead were also generally buried on the western side of the river.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Each side of the pyramid faced one of the cardinal directions. (N,S,E,W)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pyramids were constructed near enough so that the Nile could be used as a source of transportation for the huge building blocks. Care was taken to select a site without cracks in the bedrock to ensure stability.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Tombs were never again as grandiose as they were in the Old Kingdom, partly because of the persistence of the grave robbers. Since no intact Royal tombs from this era have yet been found, and it's hard to imagine what they must have been like. Pharaohs were mummified to preserve their bodies and were buried with everything considered necessary for the afterlife, including furniture, jewelry, makeup, pottery, food, wine, clothing, and sometimes even pets. The most recognizable pyramids from the Old Kingdom are the three pyramids at the Giza complex, which were built for a father and his son and grandson, who all ruled during the fourth dynasty. See image 3.10.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The pyramids of Giza were built for a Father, Khufu (Greek, Cheops, ca. 2530 BCE), Son Khafre (Greek Chephren, ca. 2500 BCE), and Grandson, Menkaure (Greek Mycerinus, ca. 2470 BCE). See Image 3.10. The largest Pyramid known as the Great Pyramid of Giza, is still largely intact today. It was the largest building in the world until the Eiffel Tower was built in 1888. Over 449 feet high, it covered an area of 13 acres and was built with over 600 tons of limestone. The sides are each 755\u2019 with a variance from the longest to the shortest sides of between 2\u201d and 7\u201d, depending on who is measuring. It is within 1\/20 of a degree of true North. Skilled craftsmen and local labor forces of Egyptians were the primary builders of the pyramids. The Great Pyramid of Giza took an estimated 20 years to construct and employed skilled stonemasons, architects, artists, and craftsmen, in addition to the thousands of unskilled laborers who did the heavy moving and lifting. Each side of the pyramid faced one of the cardinal directions. The construction of these pyramids was an enormous, expensive feat.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">They stand as testimony to the increased social differentiation, the great power and wealth of the Egyptian pharaohs and the significance of beliefs in the afterlife during the Old Kingdom.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"540\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image2-20.jpeg\" alt=\"Image of three major pyramids behind three smaller step pyramids. Cales transport people in front of them.\" width=\"540\" height=\"306\" \/> <strong>3.10<\/strong> Pyramids of Giza with the Step Pyramids and a few camels in the foreground.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote3sym\">3<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Huge funerary monuments were intended to guarantee immortality. One example is the Sphinx at Giza which was built in about 2540 to 2514 BCE near the pyramids. The human head represents the pharaoh with the body of a lion and is 240 feet long and 65 feet high.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"546\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image3-20.jpeg\" alt=\"The Sphinx shown in front of the great pyramid.\" width=\"546\" height=\"339\" \/> <strong>3.11<\/strong> Great Sphinx of Giza, Cairo, Egypt, ca. 2500 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\">4<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">King Chefren, also known as Khafre is depicted in this a dark green diorite sculpture. See Images 3.12 and 3.13. His proportions and clothing are realistic, but this was not intended to be a portrait. Instead it represents the divinity of the king. So it would be more correct to describe it as an idealized version of Chefren. Note that the king is calm and confident in his power, and Horus, the falcon god sits on his shoulder protecting him from danger and validating his right to rule.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"235\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image4-16.jpeg\" alt=\"An idealized granite carving of Khafre, an Old Kingdom ruler, where his spirit (ka) could reside in during mummification. Rock carving of the seated Khafre.\" width=\"235\" height=\"409\" \/> <strong>3.12<\/strong> Khafre from the temple of Khafre, Cairo.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\">5<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"470\"]<img style=\"color: #373d3f;font-weight: bold;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image5-17.jpeg\" alt=\"Close-up view of the head of Khafre\u2019s statue.\" width=\"470\" height=\"408\" \/> <strong>3.13<\/strong> Detail of Khafre, with the god Horus protecting him, Cairo.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\">6<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Refer back to the introductory section about Palette of Narmer to see the canon of rules. Note how they apply here: The king is idealized and consorts with the gods. He stands moving powerfully forward. This work was intended to be seen only from the front, so the back is flat and not carved. No effort was made to remove the excess stone. Royal sculpture was carved of hard stone like diorite or schist so as to last for millennia and represent the king for eternity. Keep in mind, however, that this king lived 4400 years ago, and it is possible that only the works of art made of hard materials have survived the centuries. There may have been many other beautiful works of art made of less durable materials that did not survive.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image6-2.png\" alt=\"Image of the carving of King Menkaure and his queen.\" width=\"200\" height=\"356\" \/> <strong>3.14<\/strong> King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and his Queen, circa 2460 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote7sym\">7<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"221\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image7-13.jpeg\" alt=\"Post-and-lintel construction forming the entrance to Menkaure\u2019s mortuary temple.\" width=\"221\" height=\"334\" \/> <strong>3.15<\/strong> Entrance to Menkaure Mortuary Temple.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote8sym\">8<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">This sculpture, Image 3.14, shows Menkaure and is probably his Queen Kha-merer-nebty II, although no names were included on the work itself. It is about 4\u20197\u201d tall and is carved and polished from greywacke. He wears the ceremonial beard, headdress, and kilt of the pharaoh and is depicted as a young, vigorous man. The queen wears a thin sheath which is visible near her ankles and which clings to her, emphasizing her feminine characteristics and therefore her fertility. The lower portions of his kilt and their legs and feet are not polished as are the upper portions of their bodies. His left foot is slightly forward of his right. There are traces of paint on this sculpture, indicating that it was originally painted. The entrance to Menkaure\u2019s mortuary temple, Image 3.15, is an excellent example of the post-and-lintel construction method. Notice that the weight of the lintel is held up by the two massive posts on either side of the door. We see this type of construction in temples and tombs all over Egypt.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"516\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image8-12.jpeg\" alt=\"A small but otherwise realistic stone carving of a seated scribe. He holds his paper and pen on his lap.\" width=\"516\" height=\"777\" \/> <strong>3.16<\/strong> Seated Scribe, Louvre, ca. 2500.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote9sym\">9<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"849\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image9-10.jpeg\" alt=\"The seated scribe next to museum visitors demonstrates its relatively small size of 21 inches in height.\" width=\"849\" height=\"637\" \/> <strong>3.17<\/strong> Scale of Seated Scribe, Louvre Museum.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote10sym\">10<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The Seated Scribe, Images 3.16 and 3.17, is made of painted limestone, and shows a more natural man than the ideal pharaoh. His features could depict the man as he was, with a square jaw and normal belly fat. The scribe was the most educated person in the king\u2019s court. He could read and write and probably knew some math and some aspects of the law. Although most scribes were men, there is some evidence that wealthy women also might have learned to read and write.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"533\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image10-10.jpeg\" alt=\"A carving of High Priest Rahotep and his wife, Nofret that is approximately four feet tall.\" width=\"533\" height=\"800\" \/> <strong>3.18<\/strong> Rahotep and Nofret, ca. 2610 BCE, Egyptian Museum of Cairo.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote11sym\">11<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Other important people also had funerary sculpture created for their tombs. Rahotep, see Image 3.18, was the High Priest, adviser to and military commander of Pharaoh Sneferu. Rahotep and his wife Nofret commissioned these seated sculptures of themselves of carved limestone about 2600 BCE. Notice that Nofret has a little extra weight in her neck and chin, which is normal. Both husband and wife hold their hands in ceremonial positions, and there are hieroglyphics painted behind them on the plinth. Note the color of their skin is the common red for a man who worked and conducted his business outside and white for a woman, who kept the house and children indoors and stayed away from the sun most of the day.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In addition to the construction of pyramids, the Old Kingdom saw increased trade and remained a relatively peaceful period. The pharaoh\u2019s government controlled trade. Egypt exported grain and gold and imported timber, spices, ivory, and other luxury goods. During the Old Kingdom, Egypt did not have a standing army and faced few foreign military threats. Lasting almost 400 years, the Old Kingdom saw the extension of the pharaoh\u2019s power, especially through the government\u2019s ability to harness labor and control trade. However, the power of the pharaohs began to wane in the fifth\u00a0dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Continuing environmental change that led to droughts and famine, coupled with the huge expense of building pyramids likely impoverished pharaohs in the last centuries of the Old Kingdom.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Attribution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Berger, Eugene; Israel, George; Miller, Charlotte; Parkinson, Brian; Reeves, Andrew; and Williams, Nadejda, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/oer.galileo.usg.edu\/history-textbooks\/2\">World History: Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500<\/a>\" (2016). History Open Textbooks. 2.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>References:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a>.\u00a0<a class=\"rId20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sacred-texts.com\/egy\/pyt\/pyt12.htm\">https:\/\/www.sacred-texts.com\/egy\/pyt\/pyt12.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2<\/a>. By Arian Zwegers, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. <a class=\"rId21\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped+Pyramid+of+Djoser+at+Saqqar<\/a> <a class=\"rId22\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">a.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-<\/a> <a class=\"rId23\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:Saqqara,_step_pyramid_of_Djoser<\/a><a class=\"rId24\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">(6201557496).jpg<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3<\/a>. Samehm1998, CC BY-SA 4.0. <a class=\"rId25\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3AGiza_Pyramids_-_%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;<\/a> <a class=\"rId26\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3AGiza_Pyramids_-_%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png\">ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:Giza_Pyramids_-<\/a><a class=\"rId27\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3AGiza_Pyramids_-_%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png\">%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a>. \u00a0By Nina Aldin Thune, CC BY-SA 3.0. <a class=\"rId28\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Sphinx%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASphinx_Giza.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Sphinx%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=<\/a> <a class=\"rId29\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Sphinx%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASphinx_Giza.jpg\">1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:Sphinx_Giza.jpg<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6<\/a>. Soutekh67, CC BY-SA 4.0 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Statue_of_Khafra_protected_by_Horus#\/media\/File:Khephren+Horus.j pg<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote7anc\">7<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">8<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">9<\/a>. By RAMA CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 France. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_seated_scribe-E_3023-IMG_4267- gradient.jpg<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote10anc\">10<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote11anc\">11<\/a>. By Roland Unger CC BY-SA 3.0. <a class=\"rId30\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Rahotep%20and%20Nofret&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ACairoMuseumRahotepNofret.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Rahotep%20and%20Nofret&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1<\/a> <a class=\"rId31\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Rahotep%20and%20Nofret&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ACairoMuseumRahotepNofret.jpg\">&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:CairoMuseumRahotepNofret.jpg<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"3.2-egypt-old-kingdom\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the <strong>Old Kingdom <\/strong>pharaohs built <strong>pyramids <\/strong>to emphasize their relationship to the divine and facilitate their ascent to the gods after their earthly deaths. Pyramids probably contained tombs for the pharaohs and their wives, but the wealth within the burial site was so tempting, that grave robbers made quick work of emptying the tombs and selling the contents. The earliest pyramids were built in stair-step layers. Some scholars believe they represent creation stories in which a mound of dry land appeared out of the marsh of the Nile. The stone steps enabled the pharaoh to ascend to the sun after his death. See Image 3.9.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote_sym\">1<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 463px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image1-23.jpeg\" alt=\"Image of the exterior of what may be the first stepped pyramid.\" width=\"463\" height=\"314\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.9<\/strong>\u00a0Saqqara Stepped Pyramid of Djoser, 2630-2611 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\">2<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pyramids were marvels of engineering, built on a massive scale to honor the pharaohs and usher them into the afterlife. Egyptian pyramid builders adhered to several rules:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Pyramids were built on the West side of the Nile, where sunset represented death, and the dead were also generally buried on the western side of the river.<\/li>\n<li>Each side of the pyramid faced one of the cardinal directions. (N,S,E,W)<\/li>\n<li>Pyramids were constructed near enough so that the Nile could be used as a source of transportation for the huge building blocks. Care was taken to select a site without cracks in the bedrock to ensure stability.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Tombs were never again as grandiose as they were in the Old Kingdom, partly because of the persistence of the grave robbers. Since no intact Royal tombs from this era have yet been found, and it&#8217;s hard to imagine what they must have been like. Pharaohs were mummified to preserve their bodies and were buried with everything considered necessary for the afterlife, including furniture, jewelry, makeup, pottery, food, wine, clothing, and sometimes even pets. The most recognizable pyramids from the Old Kingdom are the three pyramids at the Giza complex, which were built for a father and his son and grandson, who all ruled during the fourth dynasty. See image 3.10.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The pyramids of Giza were built for a Father, Khufu (Greek, Cheops, ca. 2530 BCE), Son Khafre (Greek Chephren, ca. 2500 BCE), and Grandson, Menkaure (Greek Mycerinus, ca. 2470 BCE). See Image 3.10. The largest Pyramid known as the Great Pyramid of Giza, is still largely intact today. It was the largest building in the world until the Eiffel Tower was built in 1888. Over 449 feet high, it covered an area of 13 acres and was built with over 600 tons of limestone. The sides are each 755\u2019 with a variance from the longest to the shortest sides of between 2\u201d and 7\u201d, depending on who is measuring. It is within 1\/20 of a degree of true North. Skilled craftsmen and local labor forces of Egyptians were the primary builders of the pyramids. The Great Pyramid of Giza took an estimated 20 years to construct and employed skilled stonemasons, architects, artists, and craftsmen, in addition to the thousands of unskilled laborers who did the heavy moving and lifting. Each side of the pyramid faced one of the cardinal directions. The construction of these pyramids was an enormous, expensive feat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">They stand as testimony to the increased social differentiation, the great power and wealth of the Egyptian pharaohs and the significance of beliefs in the afterlife during the Old Kingdom.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 540px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image2-20.jpeg\" alt=\"Image of three major pyramids behind three smaller step pyramids. Cales transport people in front of them.\" width=\"540\" height=\"306\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.10<\/strong> Pyramids of Giza with the Step Pyramids and a few camels in the foreground.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote3sym\">3<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Huge funerary monuments were intended to guarantee immortality. One example is the Sphinx at Giza which was built in about 2540 to 2514 BCE near the pyramids. The human head represents the pharaoh with the body of a lion and is 240 feet long and 65 feet high.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 546px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image3-20.jpeg\" alt=\"The Sphinx shown in front of the great pyramid.\" width=\"546\" height=\"339\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.11<\/strong> Great Sphinx of Giza, Cairo, Egypt, ca. 2500 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\">4<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">King Chefren, also known as Khafre is depicted in this a dark green diorite sculpture. See Images 3.12 and 3.13. His proportions and clothing are realistic, but this was not intended to be a portrait. Instead it represents the divinity of the king. So it would be more correct to describe it as an idealized version of Chefren. Note that the king is calm and confident in his power, and Horus, the falcon god sits on his shoulder protecting him from danger and validating his right to rule.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image4-16.jpeg\" alt=\"An idealized granite carving of Khafre, an Old Kingdom ruler, where his spirit (ka) could reside in during mummification. Rock carving of the seated Khafre.\" width=\"235\" height=\"409\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.12<\/strong> Khafre from the temple of Khafre, Cairo.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\">5<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 470px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"color: #373d3f;font-weight: bold;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image5-17.jpeg\" alt=\"Close-up view of the head of Khafre\u2019s statue.\" width=\"470\" height=\"408\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.13<\/strong> Detail of Khafre, with the god Horus protecting him, Cairo.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\">6<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Refer back to the introductory section about Palette of Narmer to see the canon of rules. Note how they apply here: The king is idealized and consorts with the gods. He stands moving powerfully forward. This work was intended to be seen only from the front, so the back is flat and not carved. No effort was made to remove the excess stone. Royal sculpture was carved of hard stone like diorite or schist so as to last for millennia and represent the king for eternity. Keep in mind, however, that this king lived 4400 years ago, and it is possible that only the works of art made of hard materials have survived the centuries. There may have been many other beautiful works of art made of less durable materials that did not survive.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image6-2.png\" alt=\"Image of the carving of King Menkaure and his queen.\" width=\"200\" height=\"356\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.14<\/strong> King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and his Queen, circa 2460 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote7sym\">7<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 221px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image7-13.jpeg\" alt=\"Post-and-lintel construction forming the entrance to Menkaure\u2019s mortuary temple.\" width=\"221\" height=\"334\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.15<\/strong> Entrance to Menkaure Mortuary Temple.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote8sym\">8<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">This sculpture, Image 3.14, shows Menkaure and is probably his Queen Kha-merer-nebty II, although no names were included on the work itself. It is about 4\u20197\u201d tall and is carved and polished from greywacke. He wears the ceremonial beard, headdress, and kilt of the pharaoh and is depicted as a young, vigorous man. The queen wears a thin sheath which is visible near her ankles and which clings to her, emphasizing her feminine characteristics and therefore her fertility. The lower portions of his kilt and their legs and feet are not polished as are the upper portions of their bodies. His left foot is slightly forward of his right. There are traces of paint on this sculpture, indicating that it was originally painted. The entrance to Menkaure\u2019s mortuary temple, Image 3.15, is an excellent example of the post-and-lintel construction method. Notice that the weight of the lintel is held up by the two massive posts on either side of the door. We see this type of construction in temples and tombs all over Egypt.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 516px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image8-12.jpeg\" alt=\"A small but otherwise realistic stone carving of a seated scribe. He holds his paper and pen on his lap.\" width=\"516\" height=\"777\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.16<\/strong> Seated Scribe, Louvre, ca. 2500.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote9sym\">9<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 849px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image9-10.jpeg\" alt=\"The seated scribe next to museum visitors demonstrates its relatively small size of 21 inches in height.\" width=\"849\" height=\"637\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.17<\/strong> Scale of Seated Scribe, Louvre Museum.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote10sym\">10<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The Seated Scribe, Images 3.16 and 3.17, is made of painted limestone, and shows a more natural man than the ideal pharaoh. His features could depict the man as he was, with a square jaw and normal belly fat. The scribe was the most educated person in the king\u2019s court. He could read and write and probably knew some math and some aspects of the law. Although most scribes were men, there is some evidence that wealthy women also might have learned to read and write.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 533px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/07\/image10-10.jpeg\" alt=\"A carving of High Priest Rahotep and his wife, Nofret that is approximately four feet tall.\" width=\"533\" height=\"800\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>3.18<\/strong> Rahotep and Nofret, ca. 2610 BCE, Egyptian Museum of Cairo.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote11sym\">11<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Other important people also had funerary sculpture created for their tombs. Rahotep, see Image 3.18, was the High Priest, adviser to and military commander of Pharaoh Sneferu. Rahotep and his wife Nofret commissioned these seated sculptures of themselves of carved limestone about 2600 BCE. Notice that Nofret has a little extra weight in her neck and chin, which is normal. Both husband and wife hold their hands in ceremonial positions, and there are hieroglyphics painted behind them on the plinth. Note the color of their skin is the common red for a man who worked and conducted his business outside and white for a woman, who kept the house and children indoors and stayed away from the sun most of the day.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In addition to the construction of pyramids, the Old Kingdom saw increased trade and remained a relatively peaceful period. The pharaoh\u2019s government controlled trade. Egypt exported grain and gold and imported timber, spices, ivory, and other luxury goods. During the Old Kingdom, Egypt did not have a standing army and faced few foreign military threats. Lasting almost 400 years, the Old Kingdom saw the extension of the pharaoh\u2019s power, especially through the government\u2019s ability to harness labor and control trade. However, the power of the pharaohs began to wane in the fifth\u00a0dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Continuing environmental change that led to droughts and famine, coupled with the huge expense of building pyramids likely impoverished pharaohs in the last centuries of the Old Kingdom.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Attribution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Berger, Eugene; Israel, George; Miller, Charlotte; Parkinson, Brian; Reeves, Andrew; and Williams, Nadejda, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/oer.galileo.usg.edu\/history-textbooks\/2\">World History: Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500<\/a>&#8221; (2016). History Open Textbooks. 2.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>References:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a>.\u00a0<a class=\"rId20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sacred-texts.com\/egy\/pyt\/pyt12.htm\">https:\/\/www.sacred-texts.com\/egy\/pyt\/pyt12.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2<\/a>. By Arian Zwegers, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. <a class=\"rId21\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped+Pyramid+of+Djoser+at+Saqqar<\/a> <a class=\"rId22\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">a.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-<\/a> <a class=\"rId23\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:Saqqara,_step_pyramid_of_Djoser<\/a><a class=\"rId24\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?sort=relevance&amp;search=File%3AStepped%2BPyramid%2Bof%2BDjoser%2Bat%2BSaqqara.jpg&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;profile=advanced&amp;fulltext=1&amp;advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASaqqara%2C_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg\">(6201557496).jpg<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3<\/a>. Samehm1998, CC BY-SA 4.0. <a class=\"rId25\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3AGiza_Pyramids_-_%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;<\/a> <a class=\"rId26\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3AGiza_Pyramids_-_%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png\">ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:Giza_Pyramids_-<\/a><a class=\"rId27\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Pyramids%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3AGiza_Pyramids_-_%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png\">%D8%A3%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A9.png<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a>. \u00a0By Nina Aldin Thune, CC BY-SA 3.0. <a class=\"rId28\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Sphinx%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASphinx_Giza.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Sphinx%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=<\/a> <a class=\"rId29\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Sphinx%20of%20Giza&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ASphinx_Giza.jpg\">1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:Sphinx_Giza.jpg<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6<\/a>. Soutekh67, CC BY-SA 4.0 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Statue_of_Khafra_protected_by_Horus#\/media\/File:Khephren+Horus.j pg<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote7anc\">7<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">8<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">9<\/a>. By RAMA CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 France. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_seated_scribe-E_3023-IMG_4267- gradient.jpg<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote10anc\">10<\/a>. Photo by Kathleen J. Hartman, CC BY-NC-4.0 License.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote11anc\">11<\/a>. By Roland Unger CC BY-SA 3.0. <a class=\"rId30\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Rahotep%20and%20Nofret&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ACairoMuseumRahotepNofret.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Rahotep%20and%20Nofret&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1<\/a> <a class=\"rId31\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?search=Rahotep%20and%20Nofret&amp;title=Special%3ASearch&amp;fulltext=1&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1&amp;\/media\/File%3ACairoMuseumRahotepNofret.jpg\">&amp;ns0=1&amp;ns6=1&amp;ns12=1&amp;ns14=1&amp;ns100=1&amp;ns106=1#\/media\/File:CairoMuseumRahotepNofret.jpg<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-343","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":258,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/343","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/343\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1543,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/343\/revisions\/1543"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/258"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/343\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=343"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=343"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=343"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=343"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}