{"id":1388,"date":"2022-10-24T22:29:24","date_gmt":"2022-10-24T22:29:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/__unknown__-54\/"},"modified":"2025-03-21T16:34:31","modified_gmt":"2025-03-21T16:34:31","slug":"__unknown__-54","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/chapter\/__unknown__-54\/","title":{"raw":"12.2 Cultural Context Values","rendered":"12.2 Cultural Context Values"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The cultural context values are the over-arching values associated with a specific era or period. They are generally influenced by the historical climate or the dominant philosophical ideas of the time.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">They can be defined as:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>that which is valued or revered by the dominant group, which often determines the kinds and style of art produced;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the culturally inherited assumptions which underlie a culture,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>internalized attitudes characteristic of a particular group or environment.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The arts of a culture usually reflect these values in different ways, and this is particularly true in the art of earlier eras. Such values may be absent in the case of individual artists who work against the prevailing values; this is probably more common in more recent times. In Humanities courses, we are always looking for the recurring themes: the two or three major cultural context values that are embraced by the majority of a culture\u2019s members. The following cultural context values are common to Humanities 1021 and 1022.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Asceticism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The monastic way of life demanded seclusion and escape from the cares of reality and the severity of monastic life stimulated the imagination. Monastic rules required that a person attain a high spiritual and moral state by obedience, silence, humility, and poverty. Turning away from the world is expressed in plain exteriors and rich interiors showing that the inside of a man is more important than what he looks like outside. Arts were not intended to mirror the natural world, but to conjure otherworldly visions and aspects of the world beyond. Artists used elaborate symbolism which was addressed to the educated, cloistered communities familiar with sophisticated allegories. Although the sculpture found in Romanesque cathedrals was certainly visible to the masses and was intended to be instructive, many Romanesque monastic works were intended to relate to the intense inner life and visionary focus of the religious community that the lay person would not understand.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"276\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2022\/10\/image1-30.jpeg\" alt=\"A photo of an apse painting done in a symbolic, rather than naturalistic style.\" width=\"276\" height=\"432\" \/> 12.15 Berze-la-ville, Fresken in der Chapelle des Moines.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote1anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote1sym\">1<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Animism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Animism is the belief that the forces of nature are inhabited by living spirits. These spirits or forces reside in each animate and inanimate object. We still hear echoes of Animism today: skies still \u201cthreaten,\u201d seas and fires \u201crage,\u201d forests \u201cmurmur\u201d and Mother Earth beacons us to \u201crest.\u201d Both Animism and Spiritualism are present in the Cro-Magnon caves.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"441\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image2-29.jpeg\" alt=\"A crude, yet quite horse-like painting of a wild horse.\" width=\"441\" height=\"332\" \/> 12.16 Animism and Spiritualism are present in Cro-Magnon Caves, Lascaux Cave.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote2anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\">2<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Antiquarianism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">For our purposes, the cultural context value of Antiquarianism shows up most clearly in Republican Roman culture. Seeking heroic origins, patrician and land-owning Roman aristocrats claimed descent from Greek heroes, and emulated the popular Greek styles of the past. (Think \u201cnostalgia\u201d). We see evidence of this in Rome\u2019s interest in copies of Classical and Hellenistic art, architecture, theatre and philosophy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"271\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image3-27.jpeg\" alt=\"A massive, muscly man leaning on his club that is partly covered by a lion\u2019s skin.\" width=\"271\" height=\"361\" \/> 9.17 Farnese Hercules, 3rd century CE. Greek god found in the Roman Baths of Caracalla.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote3anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote3sym\">3<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Authoritarianism (aka ABSOLUTISM)<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Because the human authority figure is either divine, or a sanctioned representative of the divine, his or her power is unquestioned and immune to human judgment. This absolute authority is reflected in the arts because that \u201cdivine figure\u201d tends to be the major patron of those arts, and most of the cultural expression is in support of that authority. Hierarchical messages of power and propaganda, often displayed in fearful imagery, tend to show up in authoritarian cultures. By the time of the Emperor Justinian (r.527-565) no official word could be spoken unless justified by a quotation from an earlier authority. This court was so conservative that the word \u201coriginality\u201d was considered an insult. King Louis XIV also replaced natural spontaneity with the \u201cSun God\u2019s\u201d form of cosmic law and order. Just as French statehood was unified under an absolute ruler, so were the arts brought together in a single rational plan.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"412\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image4-22.jpeg\" alt=\"An almost flat piece of stone with images carved into the surface.\" width=\"412\" height=\"290\" \/> 12.18 Narmer\u2019s Palette, 3000 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Calvinism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">While Calvinism is a result of the Reformation, rather than a cultural context value, the doctrines of Calvinism are clearly reflected in the arts. Original sin, predestination and the recognition of the transience of life are key components of Calvinistic teachings.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"489\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image5-25.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a table filled with a skull, a violin, papers, books and cloth. A candle in a candle holder is half burned down.\" width=\"489\" height=\"377\" \/> 12.19 Steenwyck, Pieter, Ars Longa, Vita Brevis.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote5anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\">5<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Classicism\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Italian respect for classical antiquity had two sources. The first was the continuation of the cultural tradition inherited first from the Romans: Latin was still the language of the educated elites, and Roman constructions (such as the coliseums) were prominent in the cities. The term \u201cGreco-Roman\u201d suggests the classical respect for both Greek and Roman sources. The second source of respect came from archaeological discoveries made during the Renaissance. For instance, the late 4<sup>th<\/sup> century B.C.E. Hellenistic sculpture of the <em>Apollo Belvedere <\/em>was discovered when Michelangelo was on his first visit to Rome in 1489-90.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"320\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image6-25.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of a handsome, nude young man with a cloak.\" width=\"320\" height=\"407\" \/> 12.20 Apollo Belvedere, Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote6anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\">6<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"274\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image7-26.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of an ideal nude man standing in a contrapposto pose.\" width=\"274\" height=\"411\" \/> 12.21 Michelangelo, David 1501, Florence, Italy.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote7anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote7sym\">7<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Domesticity<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Domesticity celebrates the material reality of everyday life, especially as demonstrated in the comforts of home. The basis of a just society is piety and private devotion, as demonstrated by an ordered and tranquil household. The subjects of paintings will be expanded to include \u201cgenre\u201d scenes of everyday life, portraits, still-life, and the natural landscape.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"286\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image8-23.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a woman and girl standing on a tile floor.\" width=\"286\" height=\"306\" \/> 12.22 Pieter DeHooch, Woman With a Child in a Pantry, 1658.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote8anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote8sym\">8<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Dualism<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">This term suggests the opposition of two conflicting, yet coexisting, principles. Examples of this contrast are demonstrated by the Zoroastrian opposition of truth v. deceit, in the polarity of the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle, in Augustine\u2019s Heavenly City of God as contrasted to the Earthly City of Man, in the divinity and yet fully human nature of Jesus, and the thrust and counter thrust of a Gothic cathedral. Keep your eyes open: you will see many more similar contrasts. Reason v. emotion. Body v. soul. Flesh v. spirit. The 13<sup>th<\/sup> century theologian Thomas Aquinas will suggest that all apparent conflicts are harmoniously unified by God. The Gothic age, as exemplified by the Cathedral of Chartres shows Dualism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"318\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image9-24.jpeg\" alt=\"An image of the front of a cathedral that demonstrates dualistic design. It incorporates Plato\u2019s ideas of science as well as symbolic ideas from Christian beliefs.\" width=\"318\" height=\"424\" \/> 12.23 Chartres Cathedral, West Facade, Chartres, France.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote9anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote9sym\">9<\/a>\u00a0<\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Empiricism\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Empiricism promotes direct experience with the material world. Instead of an idealistic (see Idealism) and abstract system of logic to explain the mysteries of the universe, Empiricism emphasizes that decisions be based on evidence collected by the senses and observation. Empirical evidence can be experienced through sight, smell, touch, etc. The result of this \u201cobservable experience\u201d is that the viewer will have empathy for the subject. A culture or period dominated by an Empirical world view will promote a Realistic style of art. Not only can you see and perhaps touch the action; you can almost smell, hear and taste the surroundings. The first century Roman poet Lucretius\u2019s discussion of the material nature of the \u201cmind\u201d and \u201csoul\u201d provides a good demonstration of Empiricism in art.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Visualize the <em>Dying Gaul<\/em> as you read Lucretius\u2019 words from On the Nature of Things (Book III):<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt;margin-right: -18pt\">\u201cYou see that our mind suffers along with the body, and shares its feelings together in the body. If the shuddering shock of a weapon, driven within and laying bare bonds and sinews, does not reach the life, yet faintness follows, and a pleasant swooning to the ground, and a turmoil of mind which comes to pass on the ground, and from time to time, as it were, a hesitating will to rise. Therefore it must needs be that the nature of the mind is bodily, since it is distressed by the blow of bodily weapons.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Keep in mind that Imperialism is a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Imperialism must not be confused with empiricism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"328\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image10-22.jpeg\" alt=\"A statue of a man dying from a battle wound. He leans on one arm and gazes into the reflection of his face on his sword.\" width=\"328\" height=\"219\" \/> 12.24 Dying Gaul, Capitoline Museum, Rome, Roman copy of a bronze ca 220 BCE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote10anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote10sym\">10<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Humanism assumes that life here and now is good and meant to be enjoyed. The cultural context value appears in three major ways. The first is a celebration of living with dignity in this world. Humanism does not focus on a sinful, fallen world; rather, it promotes the exercise of our will to live autonomously and challenge the limitations of earthly existence with strength and resilience. Rising above the ignobleness of daily experience, we become responsible for our own fate. The exaltation of humanity is so completely a part of the Western habit that we are scarcely aware of the antiquity of this influence and of its origin in the minds the Greeks.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Second, and no less important, is the understanding, as the pre-Socratic Greek philosopherProtagoras stated, that \u201cman is the measure of all things.\u201d Humankind, in this case, becomes the most important authority. In humanistic cultures, the search for truth begins with humans themselves. The design of the Parthenon, for instance, was based on average measurements of the human body.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The third way that Humanism is most often seen is in the belief that a civic life (with concern for the common good) is nobler than a life lived for the benefit of personal aspirations. In this sense, at its best, democracy is considered humanistic. Many humanists believe that individual sacrifice is appropriate if it benefits the larger community. Humanistic thought addresses questions that are basic to all humans. While the Egyptian Pharaoh is clearly a human, his authoritarian rule does not support the cultural context value of Humanism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"266\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image11-21.jpeg\" alt=\"A statue of an ideally proportioned, nude man. He would have once been leaning on a spear.\" width=\"266\" height=\"532\" \/> 12.25 Polyclitus of Argos, Doryphorus, 450-440 BCE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote11anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote11sym\">11<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Franciscan Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Still in the shadow of medieval mystical beliefs, the 12<sup>th<\/sup> century monk Francis of Assisi turned humankind\u2019s attention back to this earthly life by focusing on the humanized relationship of the Madonna and Christ. Franciscan Humanism promoted the belief that God resides in the world we know, in his Creation, and could be understood by the contemplation of that Creation and the imitation of Christ\u2019s virtues.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"226\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image12-15.jpeg\" alt=\"A detail from a painting showing a woman with a halo holding the body of Christ, also wearing a halo.\" width=\"226\" height=\"295\" \/> 12.26 Giotto, Pieta (detail), 1305-06.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote12anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote12sym\">12<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Classical Humanism\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Celebrates two great discoveries: Classical antiquity and the correlative discovery of themselves. The Renaissance version of Humanism was sparked by a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, culture, and language. In particular, the three essential cultural contest values as taught by Plato (Humanism, Idealism and Rationalism) were combined with the values of Aristotle (Realism and Individualism) to reconcile Greek thought with Christian beliefs. The Classical skills of mathematical proportion, objects spatially bound together in linear perspective, contrapposto, as well as the expressive power of the nude were utilized to express Classical Humanism. During the Medieval period, human accomplishment had been seen as a reflection of divine will and this present life was seen merely as preparation for a future life. During the Renaissance people ceased to believe that the afterlife was superior to the here and now. Civic Humanism was seen in the promotion of free republics (especially in Florence and Venice) in the competition among great cities.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"420\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image13-14.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Christ emerging from the tomb while the guards are sleep.\" width=\"420\" height=\"446\" \/> 12.27 Piero della Francesca, Resurrection, 1463.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote13anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote13sym\">13<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Northern Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Also known as<strong> CRITICAL HUMANISM <\/strong>or<strong> CHRISTIAN HUMANISM<\/strong>. Northern Renaissance Humanism placed Christian symbols (rather than Classical traditions) in a humanistic setting. The most modest parts of God\u2019s creation came under intense scrutiny, requiring the viewer to study each detail in order to comprehend the message of the divine in the everyday world. Under the philosophy of Metaphysical Transparency all objects in the created world are symbols of a higher unseen reality; they are manifestations of divine creation. We must absorb these objects detail by detail to comprehend the total message.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">There are at least three strong distinctions to be observed when comparing Northern Humanism to Italian Humanism. As had been the case in earlier Christian art, light suggests divine truth, whereas a specific light source is suggested in the Italian tradition. Secondly, linear perspective is unimportant to Northern artists; they utilized intuitive perspective. Additionally, Northern artists usually depicted common bourgeois people rather than the aristocrats who were featured in Italian paintings.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"409\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image14-15.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of an angel visiting Mary, dressed in red satin.\" width=\"409\" height=\"420\" \/> 12.28 The Annunciation, Robert Campin, Merode Altarpiece, 1425.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote14anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote14sym\">14<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Baroque Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Adds movement in time and space to the qualities of Humanism. In similar manner to Byzantine (aka Reverse) perspective, the image enters the world of the viewer. Taking influence from the Mannerist artists the viewer is engaged, frequently in a confrontational manner. And, taking influence from Northern Humanism, common people are included.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"403\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image15-16.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of men in a bar being visited by other men while golden light streams into the space.\" width=\"403\" height=\"390\" \/> 12.29 Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, 1597-98.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote15anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote15sym\">15<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Humanitarianism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Is not the same as HUMANISM. Humanitarianism suggests an interest in philanthropy. While St. Francis was concerned about the souls of urban dwellers, he chose a life of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Similarly, while Michelangelo\u2019s work is very humanistic, his Florentine sculpture of David suggests a disdain of baseness and injustice rather than a concern for human kindness. Many of the world\u2019s largest religions were taught the following precept:\u00a0 \u201cWhatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them.\u201d Historically it is difficult to find cultures that regularly practiced Humanitarianism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"365\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image16-15.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a man getting his feet washed while others eat at a table.\" width=\"365\" height=\"383\" \/> 12.30 St. Louis Feeding the Poor. Chronicles of St. Denis.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote16anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote16sym\">16<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Based on Humanistic values, Idealism seeks the eternal perfection of pure ideas. Abstract ideas such as self-control, order, and denial of change exist only because human minds have created a mental image of these ideas. Idealistic thought represents the world not as it appears to one\u2019s physical eye, but as it appears to the imagination of the mind\u2019s eye. The idealized form does not exist in this physical world, and probably never will, but that does not lessen the value of contemplating and discussing ideas. Idealism places the search for then abstract ideals of truth, goodness and beauty above all other ideas. Idealistic art will eliminate all which is not essential to the pure idea of a perfected form. Because the imaginary image of the form (the Absolute) is understood to be more \u201creal\u201d than any historical details of circumstance, individual features, extremes of age (which would imply incompleteness), and violence will be avoided. Even in death, a human figure will be depicted as vital, in the prime of life, and defying fate. Greek Gods were modeled after the ideal human (as opposed to the half animal gods of Egypt), another sign of both Humanism and Idealism. See the chart comparing Idealism and Realism is at the end of this document.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"314\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image17-14.jpeg\" alt=\"A bronze statue of an ideally proportioned nude, bearded man getting ready to throw something that is now missing.\" width=\"314\" height=\"314\" \/> 12.31 Zeus (Poseidon?), c. 460-450 BCE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote17anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote17sym\">17<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Neoplatonism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Neoplatonism was the Renaissance merging of the idealistic ideals of Plato with the mystical ideas of Christianity. As we saw with Idealistic thought, the material world was devalued in preference to the abstract ultimate reality of a higher, perfect, and divine mind. For Christians, this ultimate reality was interpreted, of course, to be the mind of God. You may have heard the term <em>Mind over Matter<\/em>. The source of that phrase is in Neoplatonic thought! Because that intellect existed prior to this physical realm, it was the First Cause, the <em>Mind<\/em>. Hence, it is more \u201creal\u201d than the <em>Matter<\/em>; this material world is just a shadow of that Divine Mind. The artistic intention of Neoplatonic art was to purify the world of matter, erasing its flaws and approximating it to the perfection of the Divine Mind. Neoplatonic thought can be seen in the works of several Renaissance artists, including Botticelli, Michelangelo and Poussin.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"393\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image18-13.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of a robed woman seated and holding an apparently dead man in her lap.\" width=\"393\" height=\"435\" \/> 12.32 Michelangelo, Piet\u00e0, 1498-99, St. Peter\u2019s, Vatican City.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote18anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote18sym\">18<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Imperialism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Artistically, Imperialism is generally depicted in grandeur: the greater the proportions, the greater is the power! Imperialism should not be confused with <strong>EMPIRICISM.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"447\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image19-11.jpeg\" alt=\"A long hall with mirrors on one side and windows on the other. It is elaborately decorated in gold.\" width=\"447\" height=\"297\" \/> 12.33 Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, France.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote19anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote19sym\">19<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Individualism\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Individualism focuses on the specific person and his plights, rather than the challenges of a group of people. Individualism tends to celebrate successful individuals as opposed to large group efforts. Facial features, emotional expression, and humor are often seen in arts that reflect Individualism. This makes sense, as a focus on Individualism is a focus on human differences, including ethnic and cultural differences, rather than similarities. Individualism sometimes (such as during the Hellenistic Era) appears when individuals have little control over their government and\/or religion. What they can control is themselves and perhaps their families.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"238\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image20-12.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of the head of a young man.\" width=\"238\" height=\"318\" \/> 12.34 Alexander the Great.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote20anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote20sym\">20<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Renaissance Individualism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">While the medieval era viewed life as controlled by capricious fate, the Renaissance stressed the kind of life whose direction was charted by personal choice. Privately commissioned portraits will elevate the individual\u2019s social status and artists, philosophers and scientists will enjoy an elevated social status.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image21.png\" alt=\"A bronze portrait of an older, balding man.\" width=\"487\" height=\"471\" \/> 12.35 Lorenzo Ghiberti, self-portrait. Baptistery doors on Florence Cathedral.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote21anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote21sym\">21<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Mercantilism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Mercantile practices exhibit an interest in trade, goods and industry. Imported goods suggest the owner\u2019s erudition and achievements. The Dutch were far more interested in trade, which is the primary reason the Dutch East India Company held exclusive trade relations at Nagasaki, Japan between 1639 and 1854, while Portuguese and Spanish missionaries were not permitted. The bounty provided by trade is celebrated in the subject matter of painting as well as in the changes that develop in the professional art world as a result of it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"318\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image22-9.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a man by a window with a compass in his hand.\" width=\"318\" height=\"360\" \/> 12.36 Johannes Vermeer, The Geographer, 1668-69.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote22anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote22sym\">22<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Mysticism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Mysticism is the view that there is an ultimate reality, hidden from the ordinary channels of knowledge, which can be revealed only to an individual mind in certain moments of insight. It is not only the intuition of what is beyond-empirical but of what is often alleged to be timeless or eternal, of something which ordinary experience is impotent to reveal. Mystical, complex ideas (such as the nature of God and the Trinity) are often expressed by means of metaphors and symbols. Symbols are thought to have power, and must be interpreted to be understood. In the Baroque era, Mystical acceptance \u201cby faith\u201d will develop. Any religion, ancient or modern, involves Mysticism. Cultures that place high importance on religion (and\/or who share a common approach to that religion) tend to embrace Mysticism as a major cultural context value. Since all cultures show evidence of religion, it is important to keep in mind that we are applying this value to cultures whose focus on religion is of <strong>major <\/strong>importance.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"652\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image23-7.jpeg\" alt=\"An elaborately painted ceiling of the heavens breaking through the architecture.\" width=\"652\" height=\"345\" \/> 12.37 Andrea Pozzo, Triumph of St. Ignatius Loyola,1685, Rome.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote23anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote23sym\">23<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Byzantine Mysticism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Four illusionistic devices are unique to Byzantine Mysticism. First, because the viewer is taking a glimpse into the perfection of heaven the light is not a natural light but a dematerialized light. The mystical sparkle of a gold background denies depth to the figures so they seem silhouetted in space. Secondly, with their wide-open eyes they present an out-of-this-world image. Naturalism and true-to-life details have no place here. Third, there is no foreground or base or contrapposto stance\u2014in essence, there is no movement. Byzantine figures are eternal; they will always be present to receive the worshipper\u2019s prayers and supplications. And yet, for device number four, they do enter our world through a technique known as<strong> reverse perspective<\/strong>. Images appear to project forward into the space between the observer and the image.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"525\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image24-7.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Mary with the Christ child on her lap. The background is gold.\" width=\"525\" height=\"787\" \/> 12.38 Theotokos and Child, Apse mosaic at Hagia Sophia, dedicated 867.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote24anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote24sym\">24<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Militant Mysticism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Militant Mysticism is the attempt to force orthodox teachings (correct thinking) on an outside heretical group. Militancy was promoted by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian as well as by both Reformation and Counter-Reformation theologians. During the Baroque period, Militant Mysticism was practiced by both the Catholic church under Pope Paul III with the 1540 Bull \u201cRegimini militantis ecclesiae\u201d (\u201cFor the Rule of the church militant\u201d) and by the Protestant leader John Calvin, who promoted the concept that the \u201cecclesia militans\u201d could become victorious here on earth.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"403\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image25-5.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Christ displaying his anger in the temple.\" width=\"403\" height=\"325\" \/> 12.39 El Greco, Purification of the Temple, 1600.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote25anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\">25<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Nationalism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Devotion to the interests or culture of one\u2019s nation. In contention with ecclesiastical authority, the hometown can be the ideal paradise.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"433\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image26-5.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a winter landscape with a windmill and icy river.\" width=\"433\" height=\"382\" \/> 12.40 Ruisdael, Winter Landscape, 1670.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote26anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote26sym\">26<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Naturalism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><span class=\"import-hvr\">These works show the physical world as it might be seen; the depiction of the appearance of nature as exactly as possible. Naturalism will feature both true-to-life details and light from a specific source. Neither symbolic meaning nor scientifically developed perspective is employed. Note the fly in <\/span><span class=\"import-hvr\">Bosschaert\u2019s<\/span><span class=\"import-hvr\"> work. <\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"346\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image27-3.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a vase of flowers. A butterfly sits on one and a fly sits on the table.\" width=\"346\" height=\"454\" \/> 12.41 Floral Arrangement, Ambrosius Bosschaert, 1618.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote27anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote27sym\">27<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Nominalism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><span class=\"import-hvr\">In the tradition of Platonic philosophy, concepts such as the <\/span><em>Annunciation<\/em>, the <em>Crucifixion <\/em>and <em>Judgment <\/em><span class=\"import-hvr\">were eternal truths. God would always be entering the human world, Christ would continually be crucified for the sins of mankind, and humans were continually being offered the choice of salvation or damnation. They were like the abstract ideas of truth, goodness and beauty. No amount of work, or resistance, would affect absolute ideas. <\/span>The Cultural Context Value of Nominalism challenges this philosophy. Nominalism <span class=\"import-hvr\">holds that <\/span>these terms of <span class=\"import-hvr\">theological jargon exist only<\/span> as <span class=\"import-hvr\">names or words (from Latin, <\/span><em class=\"import-hvr\">nomen<\/em><em class=\"import-hvr\">,<\/em><span class=\"import-hvr\"> \u201cto name\u201d).<\/span> By means of inductive reasoning, we want to understand the mysteries. What was it like when God entered this world? How did the witnesses respond to the crucifixion? What is meant by \u201csalvation\u201d and \u201cdamnation\u201d?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The artistic result of Nominalistic thought is a renewed interest in this physical world. Artists and poets (such as Dante) seek to understand the divine through the world that we know. Instead of remaining remote and eternal, theological subjects enter a world that we recognize. Figures are shown in natural surroundings, with anatomical accuracy, modeled by means of light and shadow and with attention to the perception of this world in three dimensions.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The rapid development of both naturalistic and Nominalistic thought during the Middle Ages may be seen in a comparison of paintings by Cimabue and Duccio. Compare the ears of the Christ child in each depiction. Cimabue paints the child with two ears because he thinks the child must certainly have had two ears. With attentiveness to this natural world, Duccio paints only what he sees\u2014thus, the child is shown with only one ear! Nominalistic philosophy will lead to the experimental method of modern science.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"344\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image28-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Mary with the Christ child. Refer to the text for details.\" width=\"344\" height=\"420\" \/> 4.42 Cimabue, Madonna Enthroned, detail, 1280-90.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote28anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote28sym\">28<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"296\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image29-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Mary holding the Christ child. Refer to the text for details.\" width=\"296\" height=\"420\" \/> 9.43 Duccio, Rucellai Madonna, detail. 1308-1311.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote29anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote29sym\">29<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Order and Organization\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The Romans, for instance revered the value of order. They believed that truth could be found in order. The creation of orderly systems such as laws, roads, and water projects kept the Republic, and then the Empire together. The orderly system of government maintained control even under mad emperors so that order sustained the law and benefited citizens despite upheavals caused by individuals. This allowed Rome to rule a large area with military organization, city planning, aqueducts, and bureaucracy. The Roman capacity for order and efficiency is expressed not only in their military organization, but also in Roman city planning, architecture, law, and bureaucratic government structure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"389\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image30-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A floor plan of a Roman bath.\" width=\"389\" height=\"366\" \/> 9.44 Drawing of The Baths of Caracalla.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote30anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote30sym\">30<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Rationalism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">As proposed by Pythagoras, the universe has an order, regularity, and an intelligible pattern which humans can comprehend. Rationalism is the application of <strong>pure<\/strong> reason (no physical evidence required). When many ancient humans started to appreciate their capacity for reason, they began to define themselves by it. They identified the use of logic as that which separates humankind from the other animals. The workings of human society (including the production and consumption of manufactured goods, the social organization of families and towns, the functions of national government, and even the arts) were understood to be governed by universal laws.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Some cultures considered the application of reason to be the only reliable path to truth. It was assumed that correct application of reason could guide a culture toward progress and improvement. As a consequence, this cultural context value often meshes nicely with Idealism (a combination seen in both Egypt and Greece). Cultures that embrace Rationalism have a tendency to measure beauty by using mathematics (balance and proportion are of great importance). Think \u201cratio!\u201d Rationalism is most often seen in the creation of systems based on logic. These systems may involve formulas for art, approaches to philosophy that are dependent on logic and formulas for architecture that are based on mathematic ratios. Rationalists tend to reject emotion, preferring instead, the control of reason. They will often reject physical evidence preferring, instead, logical argument. Be aware that the modern mind (yours, for example) needs physical evidence, in addition to reason, to consider it \u201crational.\u201d This was <strong>not<\/strong> necessarily the case in early civilizations.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"273\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image31-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A manuscript from a medieval manuscript.\" width=\"273\" height=\"402\" \/> 12.45 Pythagorean Theorem in a medieval manuscript, Vaticanus Palantinus.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote31anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote31sym\">31<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Baroque Rationalism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">During the High Renaissance, artistic creations generally produced a sense of balance, symmetry and equilibrium. During the later Baroque era, the previous unmoving, terracentric universe swirled with dynamic space, time and light in motion. It could be advanced that the whirling motion of navigators, astronomers and inventors culminated in the logical conclusion of a Bach fugue.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"510\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image32.png\" alt=\"A musical score.\" width=\"510\" height=\"228\" \/> 12.46 Bach, BWV 847.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote32anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote32sym\">32<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Realism is the apparent representation of things and experiences as they appear to be in recognizable, visible reality. Even if the depiction represents an imagined or supernatural figure, it has a surface reality; the artist appears to be recording exactly what he or she is seeing. However, Realism may be deceptive as there is often an emotional or psychological overlay. Realism may include trompe-l\u2019oeil and the illusion of depth using perspective. A good comparison chart of Idealism as contrasted with Realism is at the end of this document.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"295\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image33.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of an old woman.\" width=\"295\" height=\"405\" \/> 12.47 Old Market Woman, Hellenistic Greece.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote33anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote33sym\">33<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Verism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Derived from the Latin <em>veritas<\/em>(\u201ctruth\u201d)<em>, <\/em>this form of <strong>REALISM<\/strong> is an accurate and faithful portrait of an individual personality, with every wrinkle and imperfection depicted. Some Roman portrait busts are good examples of Verism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"515\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image34.jpeg\" alt=\"A bust carved of a middle-aged man with short haor and no cloak.\" width=\"515\" height=\"686\" \/> 12.48 Roman Portrait Bust, Metropolitan Museum of Art., 2nd century CE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote34anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote34sym\">34<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Scientific Naturalism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">During the early Renaissance, both human and physical nature was subjected to study and research, as it had been in ancient Greece. While allegorical explanations of the world had often been sufficient during the Middle Ages, Renaissance patrons desired correct anatomy, realistic proportions and psychological insight. Discovery of the principles of linear perspective, already known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, would satisfy the Renaissance craving for an exact and mathematically accurate description of an orderly world. The discovery of <em>D\u2019Architectura<\/em>, a book on architecture written by the ancient Roman, Vitruvius, propelled such men as Filippo Brunelleschi to develop a system whereby accurate depictions of the natural (and man-made) world could be reproduced in two dimensions. This is the system of linear perspective. Aerial perspective was also developed at this time (or, more accurately, redeveloped) at this time. It was used primarily in images of idealized landscapes painted as though seen from one of the many private towers that could be found in cites of the day. The last type of perspective is atmospheric perspective. This is where the colors and sharpness change as objects move away from the viewer. (Think of the Blue Mountains that do not look, from a distance, as though they have individual trees).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"658\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image35.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a story in three parts. Refer to the text for details.\" width=\"658\" height=\"289\" \/> 12.49 Masaccio, Tribute Money, 1427.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote35anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote35sym\">35<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Spiritualism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Spiritualism literally means the communication with the dead through a medium or psyche. The medium could be a device such as an Ouija board, spirit voices, levitating tables or automatic writing. Neither the Egyptians, nor Old Testament Hebrews, nor Christians believed in this type of communication; their beliefs would more accurately be termed <strong>MYSTICISM.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Syncretism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Syncretism is the synthesis or layering of different forms of belief or practice into a single philosophy or religion. Christianity was open to anyone who wished to be initiated and it was <strong>syncretistic<\/strong>: it accepted and adapted itself to many elements of the prevailing culture. For example, Christianity initially accepted the Jewish prohibition on the creation of images of God, but the weekly day of worship was set on Sunday (rather than the Sabbath), perhaps in recognition of the sun god Mithras (whose birthday was on December 25). Alexander the Great spread Greek beliefs and ideas wherever he traveled. Christian conquerors imposed their beliefs on indigenous peoples throughout the Americas.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"640\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image36.jpeg\" alt=\"A Celtic style cross carved into a rectangular block of stone.\" width=\"640\" height=\"427\" \/> 12.50 Yuan Stone in China with a Christian symbol.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote36anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote36sym\">36<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Utilitarianism<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">\u201cYes it is lovely but, what does it do? What is it good for?\u201d These would be questions that a utilitarian culture would ask. Pragmatism is the key to Utilitarianism. This cultural context value focuses on the functional, the practical as opposed to the ideal. Potential is NOT as important as what works. Aesthetics are fine, but usefulness is the key. Utilitarianism can be seen in the multiple uses of Roman buildings. Caesar Augustus\u2019 Idealized face on coins in a Roman validation of his rule is another good example.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"358\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image37.png\" alt=\"A gold coin with the profile of a young man on it. There is writing around his head.\" width=\"358\" height=\"353\" \/> 12.51 Divi Pater Patriae, 13-14 CE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote37anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote37sym\">37<\/a><\/sup>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: left\"><strong>Idealism and Realism Compared\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: center\"><strong>Characteristics<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 1255px;height: 312px\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 16.15pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 39px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 39px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Importance of abstract ideas<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 39px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Importance of a specific story<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 27.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 60px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Universal and timeless or eternal qualities, flawless form, no specific individual, youth or age\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 60px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Particular, peculiar, timely qualities; individual qualities of specific people, times and situations without glamorization<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 47px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 47px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Harmonious proportions\u2014forms based on precise mathematical measurement; concern for\u00a0 geometrical measurement; concern for the whole<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 47px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Lack of measured proportions; concern for separate parts<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Restrained stable and \/ or static; total control<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Active<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Closed; self-contained composition<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">More open; often acting on the surrounding space<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Impassive features; serene and contemplative expressions<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Individual reactions and expressions<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 46px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 46px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Clarity of lines<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 46px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Loss of clear-cut lines; accuracy of textures; manipulation of light and shadow; use of contrasts<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: center\"><strong>Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"height: 172px\" width=\"1254\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 30px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 30px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">To depict an ideal toward which human beings might strive<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">To describe contemporary life as it really is<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To depict universal, eternal qualities by representing the essence or purest aspect of an idea<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To represent the particular rather than the imaginative or visionary<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 46px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 46px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To represent the best in nature by eliminating the imperfections of particulars or peculiars<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 46px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To faithfully represent the reality of what is seen and experienced, including\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: center\"><strong>Typical Subject Matter<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 1250px;height: 88px\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 48px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 620.398px;height: 48px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 595.398px;height: 48px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 40px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 620.398px;height: 40px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Deities (gods and goddesses): or ordinary people depicted as such<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 595.398px;height: 40px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Any subject or contemporary life<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote1sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a> Eduard van Boxtel. CC BY-SA 3.0. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Berze_la_Ville_Apside.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote2sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2<\/a> Public domain. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lascaux2.jpg, photo by Hohum<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote3sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ercole_in_riposo_(ercole_farnese),_copia_romana_del_190-210_ca._da_orig._greco_del_350-300_ac_ca._01_(6001).JPG, By Sailko CC BY-SA 3.0.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote4sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Narmer_Palette.jpg, Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote5sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pieter_van_Steenwyck_001.jpg, Valerie75, Public Domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote6sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6<\/a> Demetrios Garatassos, CC0, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Belvedere_Apollo_Frontal.jpgPublic domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote7sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote7anc\">7<\/a> Michelangelo, David, Florence, Italy, Photo by Jorg Bittner Unna, CC BY 3.0 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU0001.JPG<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote8sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote8anc\">8<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pieter_de_Hooch_007.jpg, Public domain by Themadchopper.Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote9sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">9<\/a> Photo by Atlant, CC BY 2.5 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chartres_1.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote10sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote10anc\">10<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:0_Galata_Morente_-_Musei_Capitolini_(1).jpg, Photo by Jean-Pol Grandmont, Creative Commons\u00a0Attribution 2.0 Generic\u00a0license.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote11sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote11anc\">11<\/a> Photo by Jastrow, CC BY 2.5 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Doryphoros_MAN_Napoli_Inv6011_n02.jpg .<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote12sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote12anc\">12<\/a> Creative Commons\u00a0Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Fresque_de_Giotto,_chapelle_des_Scrovegni_%C3%A0_Padoue.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote13sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote13anc\">13<\/a> JarektUploadbot, Public domain. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Piero_della_Francesca_-_Resurrection_-_WGA17609.jpg,<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote14sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote14anc\">14<\/a> Ad Meskens, Public domain. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Campin_Annunciation_triptych.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote15sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote15anc\">15<\/a> Vivaltaltalia, Public Domain, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caravaggio%27s_The_Calling_of_St_Matthew.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote16sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote16anc\">16<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Louis9%2BPoor.jpg, Chronicles of St. Denis, Photo by Rolling Bone. Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote17sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote17anc\">17<\/a> Zeus or Poseidon, Athens, 460 BCE, Public Domain, CC0, 1.0 photo by Jebulon https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bronze_Zeus_or_Poseidon_NAMA_X_15161_Athens_Greece.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote18sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote18anc\">18<\/a> Photo by Kristine Betts. CC BY-NC- 4.0 License.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote19sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote19anc\">19<\/a> Myrabella, CC BY-SA 3.0. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg .<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote20sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote20anc\">20<\/a> Photo by Yair Hakklai, CC BY-SA 3.0 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Alexander_the_Great-Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote21sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote21anc\">21<\/a> Richardfabi-CC BY-CA 3.0. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ghiberti.png<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote22sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote22anc\">22<\/a> Photo by DcoetzeeBot, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Johannes_Vermeer_-_The_Geographer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg , Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote23sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote23anc\">23<\/a> Photo by Livioandronico2013, CC BY-SA 4.0, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Triumph_of_St._Ignatius.jpg<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote24sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote24anc\">24<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Theotokos_in_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Photo by Tsolakoglou, Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote25sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:El_Greco_-_The_Purification_of_the_Temple_-_WGA10542.jpg Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote26sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jacob_van_Ruisdael_-_Winterlandschap_met_molen_en_huis_in_aanbouw.jpg, Photo by, 1Veertje, Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote27sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote27anc\">27<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ambrosius_Bosschaert_I_-_Flowers_in_a_Rummer_with_a_Tulip_at_the_Top.jpg. Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote28sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote28anc\">28<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cimabue_-_The_Madonna_in_Majesty_(detail)_-_WGA04933.jpg JarektUploadBot, Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote29sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote29anc\">29<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Duccio_di_Buoninsegna_-_Rucellai_Madonna_(detail)_-_WGA06823.jpg, JarektUploadBotPublic domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote30sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote30anc\">30<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caracalla-Grundriss2.jpg. Joris, Public Domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote31sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote31anc\">31<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pythagorean_theorem,_Vaticanus_Palatinus_graecus_95.jpg Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote32sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote32anc\">32<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:BWV_847-Pr%C3%A9lude-derni%C3%A8res_mesures_(Ms._P401_-_f%C2%B0_4a).png Bibliotheque d\u2019Etat de Berlin, CC BY-SA 4.0.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote33sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote33anc\">33<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Marble_statue_of_an_old_woman_MET_DP277237.jpg CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote34sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote34anc\">34<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Marble_portrait_bust_of_an_elderly_man_MET_DP336020.jpg, Creative Commons, CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote35sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote35anc\">35<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Masaccio_-_Tribute_Money_-_WGA14194.jpg, JarektUploadBot, Public domain.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote36sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote36anc\">36<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_(rep).JPG, photo by PericlesofAthens, CC BY-SA 4.0 International.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote37sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote37anc\">37<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Augustus_Aureus_infobox_version.png Classical Numismatic Group, Photo by DIREKTOR, CC BY-SA 3.0.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The cultural context values are the over-arching values associated with a specific era or period. They are generally influenced by the historical climate or the dominant philosophical ideas of the time.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">They can be defined as:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>that which is valued or revered by the dominant group, which often determines the kinds and style of art produced;<\/li>\n<li>the culturally inherited assumptions which underlie a culture,<\/li>\n<li>internalized attitudes characteristic of a particular group or environment.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The arts of a culture usually reflect these values in different ways, and this is particularly true in the art of earlier eras. Such values may be absent in the case of individual artists who work against the prevailing values; this is probably more common in more recent times. In Humanities courses, we are always looking for the recurring themes: the two or three major cultural context values that are embraced by the majority of a culture\u2019s members. The following cultural context values are common to Humanities 1021 and 1022.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Asceticism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The monastic way of life demanded seclusion and escape from the cares of reality and the severity of monastic life stimulated the imagination. Monastic rules required that a person attain a high spiritual and moral state by obedience, silence, humility, and poverty. Turning away from the world is expressed in plain exteriors and rich interiors showing that the inside of a man is more important than what he looks like outside. Arts were not intended to mirror the natural world, but to conjure otherworldly visions and aspects of the world beyond. Artists used elaborate symbolism which was addressed to the educated, cloistered communities familiar with sophisticated allegories. Although the sculpture found in Romanesque cathedrals was certainly visible to the masses and was intended to be instructive, many Romanesque monastic works were intended to relate to the intense inner life and visionary focus of the religious community that the lay person would not understand.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 276px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2022\/10\/image1-30.jpeg\" alt=\"A photo of an apse painting done in a symbolic, rather than naturalistic style.\" width=\"276\" height=\"432\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.15 Berze-la-ville, Fresken in der Chapelle des Moines.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote1anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote1sym\">1<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Animism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Animism is the belief that the forces of nature are inhabited by living spirits. These spirits or forces reside in each animate and inanimate object. We still hear echoes of Animism today: skies still \u201cthreaten,\u201d seas and fires \u201crage,\u201d forests \u201cmurmur\u201d and Mother Earth beacons us to \u201crest.\u201d Both Animism and Spiritualism are present in the Cro-Magnon caves.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 441px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image2-29.jpeg\" alt=\"A crude, yet quite horse-like painting of a wild horse.\" width=\"441\" height=\"332\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.16 Animism and Spiritualism are present in Cro-Magnon Caves, Lascaux Cave.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote2anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\">2<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Antiquarianism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">For our purposes, the cultural context value of Antiquarianism shows up most clearly in Republican Roman culture. Seeking heroic origins, patrician and land-owning Roman aristocrats claimed descent from Greek heroes, and emulated the popular Greek styles of the past. (Think \u201cnostalgia\u201d). We see evidence of this in Rome\u2019s interest in copies of Classical and Hellenistic art, architecture, theatre and philosophy.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 271px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image3-27.jpeg\" alt=\"A massive, muscly man leaning on his club that is partly covered by a lion\u2019s skin.\" width=\"271\" height=\"361\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">9.17 Farnese Hercules, 3rd century CE. Greek god found in the Roman Baths of Caracalla.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote3anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote3sym\">3<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Authoritarianism (aka ABSOLUTISM)<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Because the human authority figure is either divine, or a sanctioned representative of the divine, his or her power is unquestioned and immune to human judgment. This absolute authority is reflected in the arts because that \u201cdivine figure\u201d tends to be the major patron of those arts, and most of the cultural expression is in support of that authority. Hierarchical messages of power and propaganda, often displayed in fearful imagery, tend to show up in authoritarian cultures. By the time of the Emperor Justinian (r.527-565) no official word could be spoken unless justified by a quotation from an earlier authority. This court was so conservative that the word \u201coriginality\u201d was considered an insult. King Louis XIV also replaced natural spontaneity with the \u201cSun God\u2019s\u201d form of cosmic law and order. Just as French statehood was unified under an absolute ruler, so were the arts brought together in a single rational plan.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 412px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image4-22.jpeg\" alt=\"An almost flat piece of stone with images carved into the surface.\" width=\"412\" height=\"290\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.18 Narmer\u2019s Palette, 3000 BCE.<sup><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Calvinism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">While Calvinism is a result of the Reformation, rather than a cultural context value, the doctrines of Calvinism are clearly reflected in the arts. Original sin, predestination and the recognition of the transience of life are key components of Calvinistic teachings.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 489px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image5-25.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a table filled with a skull, a violin, papers, books and cloth. A candle in a candle holder is half burned down.\" width=\"489\" height=\"377\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.19 Steenwyck, Pieter, Ars Longa, Vita Brevis.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote5anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\">5<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Classicism\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Italian respect for classical antiquity had two sources. The first was the continuation of the cultural tradition inherited first from the Romans: Latin was still the language of the educated elites, and Roman constructions (such as the coliseums) were prominent in the cities. The term \u201cGreco-Roman\u201d suggests the classical respect for both Greek and Roman sources. The second source of respect came from archaeological discoveries made during the Renaissance. For instance, the late 4<sup>th<\/sup> century B.C.E. Hellenistic sculpture of the <em>Apollo Belvedere <\/em>was discovered when Michelangelo was on his first visit to Rome in 1489-90.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 320px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image6-25.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of a handsome, nude young man with a cloak.\" width=\"320\" height=\"407\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.20 Apollo Belvedere, Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote6anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\">6<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 274px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image7-26.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of an ideal nude man standing in a contrapposto pose.\" width=\"274\" height=\"411\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.21 Michelangelo, David 1501, Florence, Italy.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote7anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote7sym\">7<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Domesticity<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Domesticity celebrates the material reality of everyday life, especially as demonstrated in the comforts of home. The basis of a just society is piety and private devotion, as demonstrated by an ordered and tranquil household. The subjects of paintings will be expanded to include \u201cgenre\u201d scenes of everyday life, portraits, still-life, and the natural landscape.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 286px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image8-23.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a woman and girl standing on a tile floor.\" width=\"286\" height=\"306\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.22 Pieter DeHooch, Woman With a Child in a Pantry, 1658.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote8anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote8sym\">8<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Dualism<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">This term suggests the opposition of two conflicting, yet coexisting, principles. Examples of this contrast are demonstrated by the Zoroastrian opposition of truth v. deceit, in the polarity of the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle, in Augustine\u2019s Heavenly City of God as contrasted to the Earthly City of Man, in the divinity and yet fully human nature of Jesus, and the thrust and counter thrust of a Gothic cathedral. Keep your eyes open: you will see many more similar contrasts. Reason v. emotion. Body v. soul. Flesh v. spirit. The 13<sup>th<\/sup> century theologian Thomas Aquinas will suggest that all apparent conflicts are harmoniously unified by God. The Gothic age, as exemplified by the Cathedral of Chartres shows Dualism.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 318px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image9-24.jpeg\" alt=\"An image of the front of a cathedral that demonstrates dualistic design. It incorporates Plato\u2019s ideas of science as well as symbolic ideas from Christian beliefs.\" width=\"318\" height=\"424\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.23 Chartres Cathedral, West Facade, Chartres, France.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote9anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote9sym\">9<\/a>\u00a0<\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Empiricism\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Empiricism promotes direct experience with the material world. Instead of an idealistic (see Idealism) and abstract system of logic to explain the mysteries of the universe, Empiricism emphasizes that decisions be based on evidence collected by the senses and observation. Empirical evidence can be experienced through sight, smell, touch, etc. The result of this \u201cobservable experience\u201d is that the viewer will have empathy for the subject. A culture or period dominated by an Empirical world view will promote a Realistic style of art. Not only can you see and perhaps touch the action; you can almost smell, hear and taste the surroundings. The first century Roman poet Lucretius\u2019s discussion of the material nature of the \u201cmind\u201d and \u201csoul\u201d provides a good demonstration of Empiricism in art.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Visualize the <em>Dying Gaul<\/em> as you read Lucretius\u2019 words from On the Nature of Things (Book III):<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt;margin-right: -18pt\">\u201cYou see that our mind suffers along with the body, and shares its feelings together in the body. If the shuddering shock of a weapon, driven within and laying bare bonds and sinews, does not reach the life, yet faintness follows, and a pleasant swooning to the ground, and a turmoil of mind which comes to pass on the ground, and from time to time, as it were, a hesitating will to rise. Therefore it must needs be that the nature of the mind is bodily, since it is distressed by the blow of bodily weapons.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Keep in mind that Imperialism is a policy of extending a country&#8217;s power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Imperialism must not be confused with empiricism.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 328px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image10-22.jpeg\" alt=\"A statue of a man dying from a battle wound. He leans on one arm and gazes into the reflection of his face on his sword.\" width=\"328\" height=\"219\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.24 Dying Gaul, Capitoline Museum, Rome, Roman copy of a bronze ca 220 BCE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote10anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote10sym\">10<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Humanism assumes that life here and now is good and meant to be enjoyed. The cultural context value appears in three major ways. The first is a celebration of living with dignity in this world. Humanism does not focus on a sinful, fallen world; rather, it promotes the exercise of our will to live autonomously and challenge the limitations of earthly existence with strength and resilience. Rising above the ignobleness of daily experience, we become responsible for our own fate. The exaltation of humanity is so completely a part of the Western habit that we are scarcely aware of the antiquity of this influence and of its origin in the minds the Greeks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Second, and no less important, is the understanding, as the pre-Socratic Greek philosopherProtagoras stated, that \u201cman is the measure of all things.\u201d Humankind, in this case, becomes the most important authority. In humanistic cultures, the search for truth begins with humans themselves. The design of the Parthenon, for instance, was based on average measurements of the human body.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The third way that Humanism is most often seen is in the belief that a civic life (with concern for the common good) is nobler than a life lived for the benefit of personal aspirations. In this sense, at its best, democracy is considered humanistic. Many humanists believe that individual sacrifice is appropriate if it benefits the larger community. Humanistic thought addresses questions that are basic to all humans. While the Egyptian Pharaoh is clearly a human, his authoritarian rule does not support the cultural context value of Humanism.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 266px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image11-21.jpeg\" alt=\"A statue of an ideally proportioned, nude man. He would have once been leaning on a spear.\" width=\"266\" height=\"532\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.25 Polyclitus of Argos, Doryphorus, 450-440 BCE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote11anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote11sym\">11<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Franciscan Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Still in the shadow of medieval mystical beliefs, the 12<sup>th<\/sup> century monk Francis of Assisi turned humankind\u2019s attention back to this earthly life by focusing on the humanized relationship of the Madonna and Christ. Franciscan Humanism promoted the belief that God resides in the world we know, in his Creation, and could be understood by the contemplation of that Creation and the imitation of Christ\u2019s virtues.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 226px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image12-15.jpeg\" alt=\"A detail from a painting showing a woman with a halo holding the body of Christ, also wearing a halo.\" width=\"226\" height=\"295\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.26 Giotto, Pieta (detail), 1305-06.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote12anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote12sym\">12<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Classical Humanism\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Celebrates two great discoveries: Classical antiquity and the correlative discovery of themselves. The Renaissance version of Humanism was sparked by a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, culture, and language. In particular, the three essential cultural contest values as taught by Plato (Humanism, Idealism and Rationalism) were combined with the values of Aristotle (Realism and Individualism) to reconcile Greek thought with Christian beliefs. The Classical skills of mathematical proportion, objects spatially bound together in linear perspective, contrapposto, as well as the expressive power of the nude were utilized to express Classical Humanism. During the Medieval period, human accomplishment had been seen as a reflection of divine will and this present life was seen merely as preparation for a future life. During the Renaissance people ceased to believe that the afterlife was superior to the here and now. Civic Humanism was seen in the promotion of free republics (especially in Florence and Venice) in the competition among great cities.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 420px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image13-14.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Christ emerging from the tomb while the guards are sleep.\" width=\"420\" height=\"446\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.27 Piero della Francesca, Resurrection, 1463.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote13anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote13sym\">13<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Northern Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Also known as<strong> CRITICAL HUMANISM <\/strong>or<strong> CHRISTIAN HUMANISM<\/strong>. Northern Renaissance Humanism placed Christian symbols (rather than Classical traditions) in a humanistic setting. The most modest parts of God\u2019s creation came under intense scrutiny, requiring the viewer to study each detail in order to comprehend the message of the divine in the everyday world. Under the philosophy of Metaphysical Transparency all objects in the created world are symbols of a higher unseen reality; they are manifestations of divine creation. We must absorb these objects detail by detail to comprehend the total message.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">There are at least three strong distinctions to be observed when comparing Northern Humanism to Italian Humanism. As had been the case in earlier Christian art, light suggests divine truth, whereas a specific light source is suggested in the Italian tradition. Secondly, linear perspective is unimportant to Northern artists; they utilized intuitive perspective. Additionally, Northern artists usually depicted common bourgeois people rather than the aristocrats who were featured in Italian paintings.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 409px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image14-15.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of an angel visiting Mary, dressed in red satin.\" width=\"409\" height=\"420\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.28 The Annunciation, Robert Campin, Merode Altarpiece, 1425.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote14anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote14sym\">14<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Baroque Humanism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Adds movement in time and space to the qualities of Humanism. In similar manner to Byzantine (aka Reverse) perspective, the image enters the world of the viewer. Taking influence from the Mannerist artists the viewer is engaged, frequently in a confrontational manner. And, taking influence from Northern Humanism, common people are included.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 403px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image15-16.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of men in a bar being visited by other men while golden light streams into the space.\" width=\"403\" height=\"390\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.29 Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, 1597-98.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote15anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote15sym\">15<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Humanitarianism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Is not the same as HUMANISM. Humanitarianism suggests an interest in philanthropy. While St. Francis was concerned about the souls of urban dwellers, he chose a life of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Similarly, while Michelangelo\u2019s work is very humanistic, his Florentine sculpture of David suggests a disdain of baseness and injustice rather than a concern for human kindness. Many of the world\u2019s largest religions were taught the following precept:\u00a0 \u201cWhatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them.\u201d Historically it is difficult to find cultures that regularly practiced Humanitarianism.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 365px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image16-15.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a man getting his feet washed while others eat at a table.\" width=\"365\" height=\"383\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.30 St. Louis Feeding the Poor. Chronicles of St. Denis.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote16anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote16sym\">16<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Based on Humanistic values, Idealism seeks the eternal perfection of pure ideas. Abstract ideas such as self-control, order, and denial of change exist only because human minds have created a mental image of these ideas. Idealistic thought represents the world not as it appears to one\u2019s physical eye, but as it appears to the imagination of the mind\u2019s eye. The idealized form does not exist in this physical world, and probably never will, but that does not lessen the value of contemplating and discussing ideas. Idealism places the search for then abstract ideals of truth, goodness and beauty above all other ideas. Idealistic art will eliminate all which is not essential to the pure idea of a perfected form. Because the imaginary image of the form (the Absolute) is understood to be more \u201creal\u201d than any historical details of circumstance, individual features, extremes of age (which would imply incompleteness), and violence will be avoided. Even in death, a human figure will be depicted as vital, in the prime of life, and defying fate. Greek Gods were modeled after the ideal human (as opposed to the half animal gods of Egypt), another sign of both Humanism and Idealism. See the chart comparing Idealism and Realism is at the end of this document.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 314px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image17-14.jpeg\" alt=\"A bronze statue of an ideally proportioned nude, bearded man getting ready to throw something that is now missing.\" width=\"314\" height=\"314\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.31 Zeus (Poseidon?), c. 460-450 BCE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote17anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote17sym\">17<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Neoplatonism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Neoplatonism was the Renaissance merging of the idealistic ideals of Plato with the mystical ideas of Christianity. As we saw with Idealistic thought, the material world was devalued in preference to the abstract ultimate reality of a higher, perfect, and divine mind. For Christians, this ultimate reality was interpreted, of course, to be the mind of God. You may have heard the term <em>Mind over Matter<\/em>. The source of that phrase is in Neoplatonic thought! Because that intellect existed prior to this physical realm, it was the First Cause, the <em>Mind<\/em>. Hence, it is more \u201creal\u201d than the <em>Matter<\/em>; this material world is just a shadow of that Divine Mind. The artistic intention of Neoplatonic art was to purify the world of matter, erasing its flaws and approximating it to the perfection of the Divine Mind. Neoplatonic thought can be seen in the works of several Renaissance artists, including Botticelli, Michelangelo and Poussin.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 393px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image18-13.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of a robed woman seated and holding an apparently dead man in her lap.\" width=\"393\" height=\"435\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.32 Michelangelo, Piet\u00e0, 1498-99, St. Peter\u2019s, Vatican City.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote18anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote18sym\">18<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Imperialism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">A policy of extending a country&#8217;s power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Artistically, Imperialism is generally depicted in grandeur: the greater the proportions, the greater is the power! Imperialism should not be confused with <strong>EMPIRICISM.<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 447px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image19-11.jpeg\" alt=\"A long hall with mirrors on one side and windows on the other. It is elaborately decorated in gold.\" width=\"447\" height=\"297\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.33 Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, France.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote19anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote19sym\">19<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Individualism\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Individualism focuses on the specific person and his plights, rather than the challenges of a group of people. Individualism tends to celebrate successful individuals as opposed to large group efforts. Facial features, emotional expression, and humor are often seen in arts that reflect Individualism. This makes sense, as a focus on Individualism is a focus on human differences, including ethnic and cultural differences, rather than similarities. Individualism sometimes (such as during the Hellenistic Era) appears when individuals have little control over their government and\/or religion. What they can control is themselves and perhaps their families.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 238px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image20-12.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of the head of a young man.\" width=\"238\" height=\"318\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.34 Alexander the Great.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote20anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote20sym\">20<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Renaissance Individualism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">While the medieval era viewed life as controlled by capricious fate, the Renaissance stressed the kind of life whose direction was charted by personal choice. Privately commissioned portraits will elevate the individual\u2019s social status and artists, philosophers and scientists will enjoy an elevated social status.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 487px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image21.png\" alt=\"A bronze portrait of an older, balding man.\" width=\"487\" height=\"471\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.35 Lorenzo Ghiberti, self-portrait. Baptistery doors on Florence Cathedral.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote21anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote21sym\">21<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Mercantilism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Mercantile practices exhibit an interest in trade, goods and industry. Imported goods suggest the owner\u2019s erudition and achievements. The Dutch were far more interested in trade, which is the primary reason the Dutch East India Company held exclusive trade relations at Nagasaki, Japan between 1639 and 1854, while Portuguese and Spanish missionaries were not permitted. The bounty provided by trade is celebrated in the subject matter of painting as well as in the changes that develop in the professional art world as a result of it.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 318px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image22-9.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a man by a window with a compass in his hand.\" width=\"318\" height=\"360\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.36 Johannes Vermeer, The Geographer, 1668-69.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote22anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote22sym\">22<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Mysticism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Mysticism is the view that there is an ultimate reality, hidden from the ordinary channels of knowledge, which can be revealed only to an individual mind in certain moments of insight. It is not only the intuition of what is beyond-empirical but of what is often alleged to be timeless or eternal, of something which ordinary experience is impotent to reveal. Mystical, complex ideas (such as the nature of God and the Trinity) are often expressed by means of metaphors and symbols. Symbols are thought to have power, and must be interpreted to be understood. In the Baroque era, Mystical acceptance \u201cby faith\u201d will develop. Any religion, ancient or modern, involves Mysticism. Cultures that place high importance on religion (and\/or who share a common approach to that religion) tend to embrace Mysticism as a major cultural context value. Since all cultures show evidence of religion, it is important to keep in mind that we are applying this value to cultures whose focus on religion is of <strong>major <\/strong>importance.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 652px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image23-7.jpeg\" alt=\"An elaborately painted ceiling of the heavens breaking through the architecture.\" width=\"652\" height=\"345\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.37 Andrea Pozzo, Triumph of St. Ignatius Loyola,1685, Rome.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote23anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote23sym\">23<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Byzantine Mysticism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Four illusionistic devices are unique to Byzantine Mysticism. First, because the viewer is taking a glimpse into the perfection of heaven the light is not a natural light but a dematerialized light. The mystical sparkle of a gold background denies depth to the figures so they seem silhouetted in space. Secondly, with their wide-open eyes they present an out-of-this-world image. Naturalism and true-to-life details have no place here. Third, there is no foreground or base or contrapposto stance\u2014in essence, there is no movement. Byzantine figures are eternal; they will always be present to receive the worshipper\u2019s prayers and supplications. And yet, for device number four, they do enter our world through a technique known as<strong> reverse perspective<\/strong>. Images appear to project forward into the space between the observer and the image.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 525px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image24-7.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Mary with the Christ child on her lap. The background is gold.\" width=\"525\" height=\"787\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.38 Theotokos and Child, Apse mosaic at Hagia Sophia, dedicated 867.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote24anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote24sym\">24<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Militant Mysticism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Militant Mysticism is the attempt to force orthodox teachings (correct thinking) on an outside heretical group. Militancy was promoted by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian as well as by both Reformation and Counter-Reformation theologians. During the Baroque period, Militant Mysticism was practiced by both the Catholic church under Pope Paul III with the 1540 Bull \u201cRegimini militantis ecclesiae\u201d (\u201cFor the Rule of the church militant\u201d) and by the Protestant leader John Calvin, who promoted the concept that the \u201cecclesia militans\u201d could become victorious here on earth.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 403px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image25-5.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Christ displaying his anger in the temple.\" width=\"403\" height=\"325\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.39 El Greco, Purification of the Temple, 1600.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote25anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\">25<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Nationalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Devotion to the interests or culture of one\u2019s nation. In contention with ecclesiastical authority, the hometown can be the ideal paradise.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 433px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image26-5.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a winter landscape with a windmill and icy river.\" width=\"433\" height=\"382\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.40 Ruisdael, Winter Landscape, 1670.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote26anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote26sym\">26<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Naturalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><span class=\"import-hvr\">These works show the physical world as it might be seen; the depiction of the appearance of nature as exactly as possible. Naturalism will feature both true-to-life details and light from a specific source. Neither symbolic meaning nor scientifically developed perspective is employed. Note the fly in <\/span><span class=\"import-hvr\">Bosschaert\u2019s<\/span><span class=\"import-hvr\"> work. <\/span><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 346px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image27-3.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a vase of flowers. A butterfly sits on one and a fly sits on the table.\" width=\"346\" height=\"454\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.41 Floral Arrangement, Ambrosius Bosschaert, 1618.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote27anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote27sym\">27<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Nominalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><span class=\"import-hvr\">In the tradition of Platonic philosophy, concepts such as the <\/span><em>Annunciation<\/em>, the <em>Crucifixion <\/em>and <em>Judgment <\/em><span class=\"import-hvr\">were eternal truths. God would always be entering the human world, Christ would continually be crucified for the sins of mankind, and humans were continually being offered the choice of salvation or damnation. They were like the abstract ideas of truth, goodness and beauty. No amount of work, or resistance, would affect absolute ideas. <\/span>The Cultural Context Value of Nominalism challenges this philosophy. Nominalism <span class=\"import-hvr\">holds that <\/span>these terms of <span class=\"import-hvr\">theological jargon exist only<\/span> as <span class=\"import-hvr\">names or words (from Latin, <\/span><em class=\"import-hvr\">nomen<\/em><em class=\"import-hvr\">,<\/em><span class=\"import-hvr\"> \u201cto name\u201d).<\/span> By means of inductive reasoning, we want to understand the mysteries. What was it like when God entered this world? How did the witnesses respond to the crucifixion? What is meant by \u201csalvation\u201d and \u201cdamnation\u201d?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The artistic result of Nominalistic thought is a renewed interest in this physical world. Artists and poets (such as Dante) seek to understand the divine through the world that we know. Instead of remaining remote and eternal, theological subjects enter a world that we recognize. Figures are shown in natural surroundings, with anatomical accuracy, modeled by means of light and shadow and with attention to the perception of this world in three dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The rapid development of both naturalistic and Nominalistic thought during the Middle Ages may be seen in a comparison of paintings by Cimabue and Duccio. Compare the ears of the Christ child in each depiction. Cimabue paints the child with two ears because he thinks the child must certainly have had two ears. With attentiveness to this natural world, Duccio paints only what he sees\u2014thus, the child is shown with only one ear! Nominalistic philosophy will lead to the experimental method of modern science.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 344px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image28-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Mary with the Christ child. Refer to the text for details.\" width=\"344\" height=\"420\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">4.42 Cimabue, Madonna Enthroned, detail, 1280-90.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote28anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote28sym\">28<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 296px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image29-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of Mary holding the Christ child. Refer to the text for details.\" width=\"296\" height=\"420\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">9.43 Duccio, Rucellai Madonna, detail. 1308-1311.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote29anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote29sym\">29<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Order and Organization\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">The Romans, for instance revered the value of order. They believed that truth could be found in order. The creation of orderly systems such as laws, roads, and water projects kept the Republic, and then the Empire together. The orderly system of government maintained control even under mad emperors so that order sustained the law and benefited citizens despite upheavals caused by individuals. This allowed Rome to rule a large area with military organization, city planning, aqueducts, and bureaucracy. The Roman capacity for order and efficiency is expressed not only in their military organization, but also in Roman city planning, architecture, law, and bureaucratic government structure.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 389px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image30-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A floor plan of a Roman bath.\" width=\"389\" height=\"366\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">9.44 Drawing of The Baths of Caracalla.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote30anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote30sym\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Rationalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">As proposed by Pythagoras, the universe has an order, regularity, and an intelligible pattern which humans can comprehend. Rationalism is the application of <strong>pure<\/strong> reason (no physical evidence required). When many ancient humans started to appreciate their capacity for reason, they began to define themselves by it. They identified the use of logic as that which separates humankind from the other animals. The workings of human society (including the production and consumption of manufactured goods, the social organization of families and towns, the functions of national government, and even the arts) were understood to be governed by universal laws.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Some cultures considered the application of reason to be the only reliable path to truth. It was assumed that correct application of reason could guide a culture toward progress and improvement. As a consequence, this cultural context value often meshes nicely with Idealism (a combination seen in both Egypt and Greece). Cultures that embrace Rationalism have a tendency to measure beauty by using mathematics (balance and proportion are of great importance). Think \u201cratio!\u201d Rationalism is most often seen in the creation of systems based on logic. These systems may involve formulas for art, approaches to philosophy that are dependent on logic and formulas for architecture that are based on mathematic ratios. Rationalists tend to reject emotion, preferring instead, the control of reason. They will often reject physical evidence preferring, instead, logical argument. Be aware that the modern mind (yours, for example) needs physical evidence, in addition to reason, to consider it \u201crational.\u201d This was <strong>not<\/strong> necessarily the case in early civilizations.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 273px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image31-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A manuscript from a medieval manuscript.\" width=\"273\" height=\"402\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.45 Pythagorean Theorem in a medieval manuscript, Vaticanus Palantinus.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote31anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote31sym\">31<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Baroque Rationalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">During the High Renaissance, artistic creations generally produced a sense of balance, symmetry and equilibrium. During the later Baroque era, the previous unmoving, terracentric universe swirled with dynamic space, time and light in motion. It could be advanced that the whirling motion of navigators, astronomers and inventors culminated in the logical conclusion of a Bach fugue.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 510px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image32.png\" alt=\"A musical score.\" width=\"510\" height=\"228\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.46 Bach, BWV 847.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote32anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote32sym\">32<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Realism is the apparent representation of things and experiences as they appear to be in recognizable, visible reality. Even if the depiction represents an imagined or supernatural figure, it has a surface reality; the artist appears to be recording exactly what he or she is seeing. However, Realism may be deceptive as there is often an emotional or psychological overlay. Realism may include trompe-l\u2019oeil and the illusion of depth using perspective. A good comparison chart of Idealism as contrasted with Realism is at the end of this document.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 295px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image33.jpeg\" alt=\"A sculpture of an old woman.\" width=\"295\" height=\"405\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.47 Old Market Woman, Hellenistic Greece.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote33anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote33sym\">33<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Verism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Derived from the Latin <em>veritas<\/em>(\u201ctruth\u201d)<em>, <\/em>this form of <strong>REALISM<\/strong> is an accurate and faithful portrait of an individual personality, with every wrinkle and imperfection depicted. Some Roman portrait busts are good examples of Verism.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 515px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image34.jpeg\" alt=\"A bust carved of a middle-aged man with short haor and no cloak.\" width=\"515\" height=\"686\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.48 Roman Portrait Bust, Metropolitan Museum of Art., 2nd century CE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote34anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote34sym\">34<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Scientific Naturalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">During the early Renaissance, both human and physical nature was subjected to study and research, as it had been in ancient Greece. While allegorical explanations of the world had often been sufficient during the Middle Ages, Renaissance patrons desired correct anatomy, realistic proportions and psychological insight. Discovery of the principles of linear perspective, already known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, would satisfy the Renaissance craving for an exact and mathematically accurate description of an orderly world. The discovery of <em>D\u2019Architectura<\/em>, a book on architecture written by the ancient Roman, Vitruvius, propelled such men as Filippo Brunelleschi to develop a system whereby accurate depictions of the natural (and man-made) world could be reproduced in two dimensions. This is the system of linear perspective. Aerial perspective was also developed at this time (or, more accurately, redeveloped) at this time. It was used primarily in images of idealized landscapes painted as though seen from one of the many private towers that could be found in cites of the day. The last type of perspective is atmospheric perspective. This is where the colors and sharpness change as objects move away from the viewer. (Think of the Blue Mountains that do not look, from a distance, as though they have individual trees).<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 658px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image35.jpeg\" alt=\"A painting of a story in three parts. Refer to the text for details.\" width=\"658\" height=\"289\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.49 Masaccio, Tribute Money, 1427.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote35anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote35sym\">35<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Spiritualism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Spiritualism literally means the communication with the dead through a medium or psyche. The medium could be a device such as an Ouija board, spirit voices, levitating tables or automatic writing. Neither the Egyptians, nor Old Testament Hebrews, nor Christians believed in this type of communication; their beliefs would more accurately be termed <strong>MYSTICISM.<\/strong><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Syncretism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Syncretism is the synthesis or layering of different forms of belief or practice into a single philosophy or religion. Christianity was open to anyone who wished to be initiated and it was <strong>syncretistic<\/strong>: it accepted and adapted itself to many elements of the prevailing culture. For example, Christianity initially accepted the Jewish prohibition on the creation of images of God, but the weekly day of worship was set on Sunday (rather than the Sabbath), perhaps in recognition of the sun god Mithras (whose birthday was on December 25). Alexander the Great spread Greek beliefs and ideas wherever he traveled. Christian conquerors imposed their beliefs on indigenous peoples throughout the Americas.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 640px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image36.jpeg\" alt=\"A Celtic style cross carved into a rectangular block of stone.\" width=\"640\" height=\"427\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.50 Yuan Stone in China with a Christian symbol.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote36anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote36sym\">36<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Utilitarianism<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">\u201cYes it is lovely but, what does it do? What is it good for?\u201d These would be questions that a utilitarian culture would ask. Pragmatism is the key to Utilitarianism. This cultural context value focuses on the functional, the practical as opposed to the ideal. Potential is NOT as important as what works. Aesthetics are fine, but usefulness is the key. Utilitarianism can be seen in the multiple uses of Roman buildings. Caesar Augustus\u2019 Idealized face on coins in a Roman validation of his rule is another good example.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 358px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/194\/2024\/08\/image37.png\" alt=\"A gold coin with the profile of a young man on it. There is writing around his head.\" width=\"358\" height=\"353\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">12.51 Divi Pater Patriae, 13-14 CE.<sup class=\"import-EndnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote37anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote37sym\">37<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: left\"><strong>Idealism and Realism Compared\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: center\"><strong>Characteristics<\/strong><\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 1255px;height: 312px\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 16.15pt\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 39px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 39px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Importance of abstract ideas<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 39px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Importance of a specific story<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 27.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 60px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Universal and timeless or eternal qualities, flawless form, no specific individual, youth or age\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 60px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Particular, peculiar, timely qualities; individual qualities of specific people, times and situations without glamorization<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 47px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 47px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Harmonious proportions\u2014forms based on precise mathematical measurement; concern for\u00a0 geometrical measurement; concern for the whole<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 47px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">Lack of measured proportions; concern for separate parts<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Restrained stable and \/ or static; total control<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Active<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Closed; self-contained composition<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">More open; often acting on the surrounding space<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Impassive features; serene and contemplative expressions<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 30px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Individual reactions and expressions<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 46px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 618.651px;height: 46px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Clarity of lines<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 597.145px;height: 46px;text-align: left\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Loss of clear-cut lines; accuracy of textures; manipulation of light and shadow; use of contrasts<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: center\"><strong>Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\n<table style=\"height: 172px; width: 1254px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 30px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 30px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\">To depict an ideal toward which human beings might strive<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">To describe contemporary life as it really is<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To depict universal, eternal qualities by representing the essence or purest aspect of an idea<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 30px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To represent the particular rather than the imaginative or visionary<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 46px\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 617.386px;height: 46px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To represent the best in nature by eliminating the imperfections of particulars or peculiars<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 598.409px;height: 46px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-indent: 0.9pt\">To faithfully represent the reality of what is seen and experienced, including\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3 class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt;text-align: center\"><strong>Typical Subject Matter<\/strong><\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 1250px;height: 88px\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 48px\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 620.398px;height: 48px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Idealism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 595.398px;height: 48px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 0pt;margin-right: -18pt\"><strong>Realism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 40px\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 620.398px;height: 40px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Deities (gods and goddesses): or ordinary people depicted as such<\/span><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"padding: 0pt 5.4pt;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 595.398px;height: 40px\"><span class=\"import-Normal tight\" style=\"margin-right: -18pt\">Any subject or contemporary life<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<div id=\"sdfootnote1sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a> Eduard van Boxtel. CC BY-SA 3.0. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Berze_la_Ville_Apside.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote2sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2<\/a> Public domain. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lascaux2.jpg, photo by Hohum<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote3sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ercole_in_riposo_(ercole_farnese),_copia_romana_del_190-210_ca._da_orig._greco_del_350-300_ac_ca._01_(6001).JPG, By Sailko CC BY-SA 3.0.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote4sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Narmer_Palette.jpg, Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote5sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pieter_van_Steenwyck_001.jpg, Valerie75, Public Domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote6sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6<\/a> Demetrios Garatassos, CC0, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Belvedere_Apollo_Frontal.jpgPublic domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote7sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote7anc\">7<\/a> Michelangelo, David, Florence, Italy, Photo by Jorg Bittner Unna, CC BY 3.0 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU0001.JPG<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote8sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote8anc\">8<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pieter_de_Hooch_007.jpg, Public domain by Themadchopper.Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote9sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote9anc\">9<\/a> Photo by Atlant, CC BY 2.5 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chartres_1.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote10sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote10anc\">10<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:0_Galata_Morente_-_Musei_Capitolini_(1).jpg, Photo by Jean-Pol Grandmont, Creative Commons\u00a0Attribution 2.0 Generic\u00a0license.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote11sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote11anc\">11<\/a> Photo by Jastrow, CC BY 2.5 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Doryphoros_MAN_Napoli_Inv6011_n02.jpg .<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote12sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote12anc\">12<\/a> Creative Commons\u00a0Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Fresque_de_Giotto,_chapelle_des_Scrovegni_%C3%A0_Padoue.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote13sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote13anc\">13<\/a> JarektUploadbot, Public domain. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Piero_della_Francesca_-_Resurrection_-_WGA17609.jpg,<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote14sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote14anc\">14<\/a> Ad Meskens, Public domain. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Campin_Annunciation_triptych.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote15sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote15anc\">15<\/a> Vivaltaltalia, Public Domain, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caravaggio%27s_The_Calling_of_St_Matthew.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote16sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote16anc\">16<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Louis9%2BPoor.jpg, Chronicles of St. Denis, Photo by Rolling Bone. Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote17sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote17anc\">17<\/a> Zeus or Poseidon, Athens, 460 BCE, Public Domain, CC0, 1.0 photo by Jebulon https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bronze_Zeus_or_Poseidon_NAMA_X_15161_Athens_Greece.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote18sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote18anc\">18<\/a> Photo by Kristine Betts. CC BY-NC- 4.0 License.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote19sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote19anc\">19<\/a> Myrabella, CC BY-SA 3.0. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg .<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote20sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote20anc\">20<\/a> Photo by Yair Hakklai, CC BY-SA 3.0 https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Alexander_the_Great-Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote21sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote21anc\">21<\/a> Richardfabi-CC BY-CA 3.0. https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ghiberti.png<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote22sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote22anc\">22<\/a> Photo by DcoetzeeBot, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Johannes_Vermeer_-_The_Geographer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg , Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote23sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote23anc\">23<\/a> Photo by Livioandronico2013, CC BY-SA 4.0, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Triumph_of_St._Ignatius.jpg<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote24sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote24anc\">24<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Theotokos_in_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Photo by Tsolakoglou, Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote25sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:El_Greco_-_The_Purification_of_the_Temple_-_WGA10542.jpg Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote26sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jacob_van_Ruisdael_-_Winterlandschap_met_molen_en_huis_in_aanbouw.jpg, Photo by, 1Veertje, Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote27sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote27anc\">27<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ambrosius_Bosschaert_I_-_Flowers_in_a_Rummer_with_a_Tulip_at_the_Top.jpg. Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote28sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote28anc\">28<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cimabue_-_The_Madonna_in_Majesty_(detail)_-_WGA04933.jpg JarektUploadBot, Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote29sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote29anc\">29<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Duccio_di_Buoninsegna_-_Rucellai_Madonna_(detail)_-_WGA06823.jpg, JarektUploadBotPublic domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote30sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote30anc\">30<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caracalla-Grundriss2.jpg. Joris, Public Domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote31sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote31anc\">31<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pythagorean_theorem,_Vaticanus_Palatinus_graecus_95.jpg Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote32sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote32anc\">32<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:BWV_847-Pr%C3%A9lude-derni%C3%A8res_mesures_(Ms._P401_-_f%C2%B0_4a).png Bibliotheque d\u2019Etat de Berlin, CC BY-SA 4.0.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote33sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote33anc\">33<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Marble_statue_of_an_old_woman_MET_DP277237.jpg CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote34sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote34anc\">34<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Marble_portrait_bust_of_an_elderly_man_MET_DP336020.jpg, Creative Commons, CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote35sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote35anc\">35<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Masaccio_-_Tribute_Money_-_WGA14194.jpg, JarektUploadBot, Public domain.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote36sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote36anc\">36<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_(rep).JPG, photo by PericlesofAthens, CC BY-SA 4.0 International.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote37sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote37anc\">37<\/a> https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Augustus_Aureus_infobox_version.png Classical Numismatic Group, Photo by DIREKTOR, CC BY-SA 3.0.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":21,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[61,60],"license":[53],"class_list":["post-1388","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-kate-pagel","contributor-kristine-betts","license-cc-by-sa"],"part":407,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1388","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1388\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1640,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1388\/revisions\/1640"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/407"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1388\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1388"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1388"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1388"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschum1021earlycivilizations\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1388"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}