{"id":290,"date":"2023-03-13T17:38:48","date_gmt":"2023-03-13T17:38:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/chapter\/module-6-12\/"},"modified":"2023-04-28T20:44:04","modified_gmt":"2023-04-28T20:44:04","slug":"module-6-12","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/chapter\/module-6-12\/","title":{"raw":"6.12 September 11 and the War on Terror","rendered":"6.12 September 11 and the War on Terror"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\nOn the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen operatives of the al-Qaeda terrorist organization hijacked four passenger planes on the East Coast. American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT). United Airlines Flight 175 crashed into the South Tower at 9:03. American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the western fa\u00e7ade of the Pentagon at 9:37. At 9:59, the South Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed. At 10:03, United Airlines Flight 93 crashed in a field outside Shanksville, Pennsylvania, brought down by passengers who had received news of the earlier hijackings. At 10:28, the North Tower collapsed. In less than two hours, nearly three thousand Americans had been killed.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_541\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]\"Ground Ground Zero six days after the September 11th attacks. Wikimedia<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe attacks stunned Americans. Late that night, Bush addressed the nation and assured the country that \u201cthe search is underway for those who are behind these evil acts.\u201d At Ground Zero three days later, Bush thanked first responders for their work. A worker said he couldn\u2019t hear him. \u201cI can hear you,\u201d Bush shouted back, \u201cThe rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon.\u201d1<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]\"President President Bush addresses rescue workers at Ground Zero. 2001. FEMA Photo Library<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nAmerican intelligence agencies quickly identified the radical Islamic militant group al-Qaeda, led by the wealthy Saudi Osama bin Laden, as the perpetrators of the attack. Sheltered in Afghanistan by the Taliban, the country\u2019s Islamic government, al-Qaeda was responsible for a 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and a string of attacks at U.S. embassies and military bases across the world. Bin Laden\u2019s Islamic radicalism and his anti-American aggression attracted supporters across the region and, by 2001, al-Qaeda was active in over sixty countries.\r\n\r\nAlthough in his presidential campaign Bush had denounced foreign nation-building, he populated his administration with neoconservatives, firm believers in the expansion of American democracy and American interests abroad. Bush advanced what was sometimes called the Bush Doctrine, a policy in which the United States would have the right to unilaterally and preemptively make war on any regime or terrorist organization that posed a threat to the United States or to U.S. citizens. It would lead the United States into protracted conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq and entangle the United States in nations across the world. Journalist Dexter Filkins called it a Forever War, a perpetual conflict waged against an amorphous and undefeatable enemy.2<\/sup><\/a> The geopolitical realities of the twenty-first-century world were forever transformed.\r\n\r\nThe United States, of course, had a history in Afghanistan. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 to quell an insurrection that threatened to topple Kabul\u2019s communist government, the United States financed and armed anti-Soviet insurgents, the Mujahideen. In 1981, the Reagan administration authorized the CIA to provide the Mujahideen with weapons and training to strengthen the insurgency. An independent wealthy young Saudi, Osama bin Laden, also fought with and funded the Mujahideen. And they began to win. Afghanistan bled the Soviet Union dry. The costs of the war, coupled with growing instability at home, convinced the Soviets to withdraw from Afghanistan in 1989.3<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nOsama bin Laden relocated al-Qaeda to Afghanistan after the country fell to the Taliban in 1996. Under Bill Clinton, the United States launched cruise missiles at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan in retaliation for al-Qaeda bombings on American embassies in Africa.\r\n\r\nAfter September 11, with a broad authorization of military force, Bush administration officials made plans for military action against al-Qaeda and the Taliban. What would become the longest war in American history began with the launching of Operation Enduring Freedom in October 2001. Air and missile strikes hit targets across Afghanistan. U.S. Special Forces joined with fighters in the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. Major Afghan cities fell in quick succession. The capital, Kabul, fell on November 13. Bin Laden and al-Qaeda operatives retreated into the rugged mountains along the border of Pakistan in eastern Afghanistan. The American occupation of Afghanistan continued.\r\n\r\nAs American troops struggled to contain the Taliban in Afghanistan, the Bush administration set its sights on Iraq. After the conclusion of the Gulf War in 1991, American officials established economic sanctions, weapons inspections, and no-fly zones. By mid-1991, American warplanes were routinely patrolling Iraqi skies and coming under periodic fire from Iraqi missile batteries. The overall cost to the United States of maintaining the two no-fly zones over Iraq was roughly $1 billion a year. Related military activities in the region added almost another $500 million to the annual bill. On the ground in Iraq, meanwhile, Iraqi authorities clashed with UN weapons inspectors. Iraq had suspended its program for weapons of mass destruction, but Saddam Hussein fostered ambiguity about the weapons in the minds of regional leaders to forestall any possible attacks against Iraq.\r\n\r\nIn 1998, a standoff between Hussein and the United Nations over weapons inspections led President Bill Clinton to launch punitive strikes aimed at debilitating what was thought to be a developed chemical weapons program. Attacks began on December 16, 1998. More than two hundred cruise missiles fired from U.S. Navy warships and Air Force B-52 bombers flew into Iraq, targeting suspected chemical weapons storage facilities, missile batteries, and command centers. Airstrikes continued for three more days, unleashing in total 415 cruise missiles and 600 bombs against 97 targets. The number of bombs dropped was nearly double the number used in the 1991 conflict.\r\n\r\nThe United States and Iraq remained at odds throughout the 1990s and early 2000, when Bush administration officials began championing \u201cregime change.\u201d The Bush administration publicly denounced Saddam Hussein\u2019s regime and its alleged weapons of mass destruction. It began pushing for war in the fall of 2002. The administration alleged that Hussein was trying to acquire uranium and that it had aluminum tubes used for nuclear centrifuges. Public opinion was divided. George W. Bush said in October, \u201cFacing clear evidence of peril, we cannot wait for the final proof\u2014the smoking gun\u2014that could come in the form of a mushroom cloud.\u201d4<\/sup><\/a> The administration\u2019s push for war was in full swing. Protests broke out across the country and all over the world, but majorities of Americans supported military action. On October 16, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq resolution, giving Bush the power to make war in Iraq. Iraq began cooperating with UN weapons inspectors in late 2002, but the Bush administration pressed on. On February 6, 2003, Secretary of State Colin Powell, who had risen to public prominence as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of State during the Persian Gulf War in 1991, presented allegations of a robust Iraqi weapons program to the UN. Protests continued.\r\n\r\nThe first American bombs hit Baghdad on March 20, 2003. Several hundred thousand troops moved into Iraq and Hussein\u2019s regime quickly collapsed. Baghdad fell on April 9. On May 1, 2003, aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln<\/em>, beneath a banner reading Mission Accomplished<\/em>, George W. Bush announced that \u201cmajor combat operations in Iraq have ended.\u201d5<\/sup><\/a> No evidence of weapons of mass destruction were ever found. And combat operations had not ended, not really. The Iraqi insurgency had begun, and the United States would spend the next ten years struggling to contain it.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]\"Despite Despite George W. Bush\u2019s ill-conceived photo op under a Mission Accomplished banner in May 2003, combat operations in Iraq continued for years. Wikimedia<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nEfforts by various intelligence gathering agencies led to the capture of Saddam Hussein, hidden in an underground compartment near his hometown, on December 13, 2003. The new Iraqi government found him guilty of crimes against humanity and he was hanged on December 30, 2006.\r\n\r\nAmong the most overlooked aspects of the War on Terror is the effect it had on Muslims within the United States. While both ideological and systemic racism towards a number of groups has become increasingly well-documented, analysis of the layers of prejudice directed against Muslims or just people of \u201cMiddle Eastern\u201d heritage (regardless of religion) remains subjugated. The manufacture of an \u201cother\u201d in the form of an \u201cevil\u201d caricature\u2014a composite of a diverse array of peoples\u2014not only helped rationalize violent invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as increasing \u201cclandestine\u201d bombing campaigns in neighboring countries\u2014to include most notably Yemen and Syria, but social and political persecution of American citizens. Popular media outlets as well as social media campaigns further fueled anti-Muslim sentiment through sensationalist narratives and charged use of language.6<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=7ZohjYKGZJM[\/embed]\r\n\r\nIf you have difficulty viewing the video above, use this link\u00a0https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=7ZohjYKGZJM<\/a>.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=7WEd34oW9BI&t=22s[\/embed]\r\n\r\nIf you have difficulty viewing the video above, use this link\u00a0https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=7WEd34oW9BI&t=22s<\/a>.\r\n\r\nAmericans that identified as Muslim or visually fit the manufactured caricature of Muslim faced constant profiling by authorities, violations of both Constitutional and Civil Rights, as well as social isolation and even outright hate crimes through the 2010s.\r\n

The End of the Bush Years<\/h2>\r\nThe War on Terror was a centerpiece in the race for the White House in 2004. The Democratic ticket, headed by Massachusetts senator John F. Kerry, a Vietnam War hero who entered the public consciousness for his subsequent testimony against it, attacked Bush for the ongoing inability to contain the Iraqi insurgency or to find weapons of mass destruction, the revelation and photographic evidence that American soldiers had abused prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison outside Baghdad, and the inability to find Osama bin Laden. Moreover, many enemy combatants who had been captured in Iraq and Afghanistan were \u201cdetained\u201d indefinitely at a military prison in Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. \u201cGitmo\u201d became infamous for its harsh treatment, indefinite detentions, and torture of prisoners. Bush defended the War on Terror, and his allies attacked critics for failing to \u201csupport the troops.\u201d Moreover, Kerry had voted for the war\u2014he had to attack the very thing that he had authorized. Bush won a close but clear victory.\r\n\r\nThe second Bush term saw the continued deterioration of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, but Bush\u2019s presidency would take a bigger hit from his perceived failure to respond to the domestic tragedy that followed Hurricane Katrina\u2019s devastating hit on the Gulf Coast. Katrina had been a category 5 hurricane. It was, the New Orleans Times-Picayune<\/em> reported, \u201cthe storm we always feared.\u201d7<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nNew Orleans suffered a direct hit, the levees broke, and the bulk of the city flooded. Thousands of refugees flocked to the Superdome, where supplies and medical treatment and evacuation were slow to come. Individuals died in the heat. Bodies wasted away. Americans saw poor black Americans abandoned. Katrina became a symbol of a broken administrative system, a devastated coastline, and irreparable social structures that allowed escape and recovery for some and not for others. Critics charged that Bush had staffed his administration with incompetent supporters and had further ignored the displaced poor and black residents of New Orleans.8<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]\"Photograph Hurricane Katrina was one of the deadliest and more destructive hurricanes to hit American soil in U.S. history. It nearly destroyed New Orleans, Louisiana, as well as cities, towns, and rural areas across the Gulf Coast. It sent hundreds of thousands of refugees to near-by cities like Houston, Texas, where they temporarily resided in massive structures like the Astrodome. Photograph, September 1, 2005. Wikimedia<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nImmigration, meanwhile, had become an increasingly potent political issue. The Clinton administration had overseen the implementation of several anti-immigration policies on the U.S.-Mexico border, but hunger and poverty were stronger incentives than border enforcement policies were deterrents. Illegal immigration continued, often at great human cost, but nevertheless fanned widespread anti-immigration sentiment among many American conservatives. Many immigrants and their supporters, however, fought back. 2006 saw waves of massive protests across the country. Hundreds of thousands marched in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles, and tens of thousands marched in smaller cities around the country. Legal change, however, went nowhere. Moderate conservatives feared upsetting business interests\u2019 demand for cheap, exploitable labor and alienating large voting blocs by stifling immigration, and moderate liberals feared upsetting anti-immigrant groups by pushing too hard for liberalization of immigration laws.\r\n\r\nAfghanistan and Iraq, meanwhile, continued to deteriorate. In 2006, the Taliban reemerged, as the Afghan government proved both highly corrupt and incapable of providing social services or security for its citizens. Iraq only descended further into chaos as insurgents battled against American troops and groups such as Abu Musab al-Zarqawi\u2019s al-Qaeda in Iraq bombed civilians and released video recordings of beheadings.\r\n\r\nIn 2007, twenty-seven thousand additional U.S. forces deployed to Iraq under the command of General David Petraeus. The effort, \u201cthe surge,\u201d employed more sophisticated anti-insurgency strategies and, combined with Sunni efforts, pacified many of Iraq\u2019s cities and provided cover for the withdrawal of American forces. On December 4, 2008, the Iraqi government approved the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, and U.S. combat forces withdrew from Iraqi cities before June 30, 2009. The last U.S. combat forces left Iraq on December 18, 2011. Violence and instability continued to rock the country.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]\"Opened Opened in 2005, the Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan, is the largest Islamic center in the United States. Photograph, 2008. Wikimedia<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n

Notes<\/h4>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. George W. Bush, \u201cBullhorn Address to Ground Zero Rescue Workers,\u201d September 14, 2001, at American Rhetoric<\/em>, https:\/\/www.americanrhetoric.com\/speeches\/gwbush911groundzerobullhorn.htm. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Dexter Filkins, The Forever War<\/em> (New York: Vintage Books, 2009). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  3. See, for instance, Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9\/11<\/em> (New York: Knopf, 2006). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Thomas R. Mockaitis, The Iraq War: A Documentary and Reference Guide<\/em> (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012), 26. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Judy Keen, \u201cBush to Troops: Mission Accomplished,\u201d USA Today<\/em>, June 5, 2003. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Mehdi Semati, \u201cIslamophobia, Culture, and Race in the Age of Empire\u201d, Cultural Studies<\/em>, 24:2, March 2, 2010, pp. 265-275.<\/li>\r\n \t
  7. Bruce Nolan, \u201cKatrina: The Storm We\u2019ve Always Feared,\u201d New Orleans Times-Picayune<\/em>, August 30, 2005. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  8. Douglas Brinkley, The Great Deluge: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast<\/em> (New York: HarperCollins, 2006). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
    \n

    On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen operatives of the al-Qaeda terrorist organization hijacked four passenger planes on the East Coast. American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT). United Airlines Flight 175 crashed into the South Tower at 9:03. American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the western fa\u00e7ade of the Pentagon at 9:37. At 9:59, the South Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed. At 10:03, United Airlines Flight 93 crashed in a field outside Shanksville, Pennsylvania, brought down by passengers who had received news of the earlier hijackings. At 10:28, the North Tower collapsed. In less than two hours, nearly three thousand Americans had been killed.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \"Ground
    Ground Zero six days after the September 11th attacks. Wikimedia<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

     <\/p>\n

    The attacks stunned Americans. Late that night, Bush addressed the nation and assured the country that \u201cthe search is underway for those who are behind these evil acts.\u201d At Ground Zero three days later, Bush thanked first responders for their work. A worker said he couldn\u2019t hear him. \u201cI can hear you,\u201d Bush shouted back, \u201cThe rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon.\u201d1<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \"President
    President Bush addresses rescue workers at Ground Zero. 2001. FEMA Photo Library<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

     <\/p>\n

    American intelligence agencies quickly identified the radical Islamic militant group al-Qaeda, led by the wealthy Saudi Osama bin Laden, as the perpetrators of the attack. Sheltered in Afghanistan by the Taliban, the country\u2019s Islamic government, al-Qaeda was responsible for a 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and a string of attacks at U.S. embassies and military bases across the world. Bin Laden\u2019s Islamic radicalism and his anti-American aggression attracted supporters across the region and, by 2001, al-Qaeda was active in over sixty countries.<\/p>\n

    Although in his presidential campaign Bush had denounced foreign nation-building, he populated his administration with neoconservatives, firm believers in the expansion of American democracy and American interests abroad. Bush advanced what was sometimes called the Bush Doctrine, a policy in which the United States would have the right to unilaterally and preemptively make war on any regime or terrorist organization that posed a threat to the United States or to U.S. citizens. It would lead the United States into protracted conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq and entangle the United States in nations across the world. Journalist Dexter Filkins called it a Forever War, a perpetual conflict waged against an amorphous and undefeatable enemy.2<\/sup><\/a> The geopolitical realities of the twenty-first-century world were forever transformed.<\/p>\n

    The United States, of course, had a history in Afghanistan. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 to quell an insurrection that threatened to topple Kabul\u2019s communist government, the United States financed and armed anti-Soviet insurgents, the Mujahideen. In 1981, the Reagan administration authorized the CIA to provide the Mujahideen with weapons and training to strengthen the insurgency. An independent wealthy young Saudi, Osama bin Laden, also fought with and funded the Mujahideen. And they began to win. Afghanistan bled the Soviet Union dry. The costs of the war, coupled with growing instability at home, convinced the Soviets to withdraw from Afghanistan in 1989.3<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    Osama bin Laden relocated al-Qaeda to Afghanistan after the country fell to the Taliban in 1996. Under Bill Clinton, the United States launched cruise missiles at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan in retaliation for al-Qaeda bombings on American embassies in Africa.<\/p>\n

    After September 11, with a broad authorization of military force, Bush administration officials made plans for military action against al-Qaeda and the Taliban. What would become the longest war in American history began with the launching of Operation Enduring Freedom in October 2001. Air and missile strikes hit targets across Afghanistan. U.S. Special Forces joined with fighters in the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. Major Afghan cities fell in quick succession. The capital, Kabul, fell on November 13. Bin Laden and al-Qaeda operatives retreated into the rugged mountains along the border of Pakistan in eastern Afghanistan. The American occupation of Afghanistan continued.<\/p>\n

    As American troops struggled to contain the Taliban in Afghanistan, the Bush administration set its sights on Iraq. After the conclusion of the Gulf War in 1991, American officials established economic sanctions, weapons inspections, and no-fly zones. By mid-1991, American warplanes were routinely patrolling Iraqi skies and coming under periodic fire from Iraqi missile batteries. The overall cost to the United States of maintaining the two no-fly zones over Iraq was roughly $1 billion a year. Related military activities in the region added almost another $500 million to the annual bill. On the ground in Iraq, meanwhile, Iraqi authorities clashed with UN weapons inspectors. Iraq had suspended its program for weapons of mass destruction, but Saddam Hussein fostered ambiguity about the weapons in the minds of regional leaders to forestall any possible attacks against Iraq.<\/p>\n

    In 1998, a standoff between Hussein and the United Nations over weapons inspections led President Bill Clinton to launch punitive strikes aimed at debilitating what was thought to be a developed chemical weapons program. Attacks began on December 16, 1998. More than two hundred cruise missiles fired from U.S. Navy warships and Air Force B-52 bombers flew into Iraq, targeting suspected chemical weapons storage facilities, missile batteries, and command centers. Airstrikes continued for three more days, unleashing in total 415 cruise missiles and 600 bombs against 97 targets. The number of bombs dropped was nearly double the number used in the 1991 conflict.<\/p>\n

    The United States and Iraq remained at odds throughout the 1990s and early 2000, when Bush administration officials began championing \u201cregime change.\u201d The Bush administration publicly denounced Saddam Hussein\u2019s regime and its alleged weapons of mass destruction. It began pushing for war in the fall of 2002. The administration alleged that Hussein was trying to acquire uranium and that it had aluminum tubes used for nuclear centrifuges. Public opinion was divided. George W. Bush said in October, \u201cFacing clear evidence of peril, we cannot wait for the final proof\u2014the smoking gun\u2014that could come in the form of a mushroom cloud.\u201d4<\/sup><\/a> The administration\u2019s push for war was in full swing. Protests broke out across the country and all over the world, but majorities of Americans supported military action. On October 16, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq resolution, giving Bush the power to make war in Iraq. Iraq began cooperating with UN weapons inspectors in late 2002, but the Bush administration pressed on. On February 6, 2003, Secretary of State Colin Powell, who had risen to public prominence as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of State during the Persian Gulf War in 1991, presented allegations of a robust Iraqi weapons program to the UN. Protests continued.<\/p>\n

    The first American bombs hit Baghdad on March 20, 2003. Several hundred thousand troops moved into Iraq and Hussein\u2019s regime quickly collapsed. Baghdad fell on April 9. On May 1, 2003, aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln<\/em>, beneath a banner reading Mission Accomplished<\/em>, George W. Bush announced that \u201cmajor combat operations in Iraq have ended.\u201d5<\/sup><\/a> No evidence of weapons of mass destruction were ever found. And combat operations had not ended, not really. The Iraqi insurgency had begun, and the United States would spend the next ten years struggling to contain it.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \"Despite
    Despite George W. Bush\u2019s ill-conceived photo op under a Mission Accomplished banner in May 2003, combat operations in Iraq continued for years. Wikimedia<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Efforts by various intelligence gathering agencies led to the capture of Saddam Hussein, hidden in an underground compartment near his hometown, on December 13, 2003. The new Iraqi government found him guilty of crimes against humanity and he was hanged on December 30, 2006.<\/p>\n

    Among the most overlooked aspects of the War on Terror is the effect it had on Muslims within the United States. While both ideological and systemic racism towards a number of groups has become increasingly well-documented, analysis of the layers of prejudice directed against Muslims or just people of \u201cMiddle Eastern\u201d heritage (regardless of religion) remains subjugated. The manufacture of an \u201cother\u201d in the form of an \u201cevil\u201d caricature\u2014a composite of a diverse array of peoples\u2014not only helped rationalize violent invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as increasing \u201cclandestine\u201d bombing campaigns in neighboring countries\u2014to include most notably Yemen and Syria, but social and political persecution of American citizens. Popular media outlets as well as social media campaigns further fueled anti-Muslim sentiment through sensationalist narratives and charged use of language.6<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n