{"id":255,"date":"2023-03-13T17:27:16","date_gmt":"2023-03-13T17:27:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/chapter\/module-5-11\/"},"modified":"2023-03-20T19:35:57","modified_gmt":"2023-03-20T19:35:57","slug":"module-5-11","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/chapter\/module-5-11\/","title":{"raw":"5.11 The Great Society","rendered":"5.11 The Great Society"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"610\"]\"Photograph The day President Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 US Government. Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nOn a May morning in 1964, President Johnson laid out a sweeping vision for a package of domestic reforms known as the Great Society. Speaking before that year\u2019s graduates of the University of Michigan, Johnson called for \u201can end to poverty and racial injustice\u201d and challenged both the graduates and American people to \u201cenrich and elevate our national life, and to advance the quality of our American civilization.\u201d At its heart, he promised, the Great Society would uplift racially and economically disfranchised Americans, too long denied access to federal guarantees of equal democratic and economic opportunity, while simultaneously raising all Americans\u2019 standards and quality of life.1<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nThe Great Society\u2019s legislation was breathtaking in scope, and many of its programs and agencies are still with us today. Most importantly, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 codified federal support for many of the Civil Rights Movement\u2019s goals by prohibiting job discrimination, abolishing the segregation of public accommodations, and providing vigorous federal oversight of southern states\u2019 election laws in order to guarantee minority access to the ballot. Ninety years after Reconstruction, these measures effectively ended Jim Crow.\r\n\r\nIn addition to civil rights, the Great Society took on a range of quality-of-life concerns that seemed suddenly solvable in a society of such affluence. It established the first federal food stamp program. Medicare and Medicaid would ensure access to quality medical care for the aged and poor. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was the first sustained and significant federal investment in public education, totaling more than $1 billion. Significant funds were poured into colleges and universities. The Great Society also established the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities, federal investments in arts and letters that fund American cultural expression to this day.\r\n\r\nWhile these programs persisted and even thrived, in the years immediately following this flurry of legislative activity, the national conversation surrounding Johnson\u2019s domestic agenda largely focused on the $3 billion spent on War on Poverty programming within the Great Society\u2019s Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) of 1964. No EOA program was more controversial than Community Action, considered the cornerstone antipoverty program. Johnson\u2019s antipoverty planners felt that the key to uplifting disfranchised and impoverished Americans was involving poor and marginalized citizens in the actual administration of poverty programs, what they called \u201cmaximum feasible participation.\u201d Community Action Programs would give disfranchised Americans a seat at the table in planning and executing federally funded programs that were meant to benefit them\u2014a significant sea change in the nation\u2019s efforts to confront poverty, which had historically relied on local political and business elites or charitable organizations for administration. 2<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nIn fact, Johnson himself had never conceived of poor Americans running their own poverty programs. While the president\u2019s rhetoric offered a stirring vision of the future, he had singularly old-school notions for how his poverty policies would work. In contrast to \u201cmaximum feasible participation,\u201d the president imagined a second New Deal: local elite-run public works camps that would instill masculine virtues in unemployed young men. Community Action almost entirely bypassed local administrations and sought to build grassroots civil rights and community advocacy organizations, many of which had originated in the broader Civil Rights Movement. Despite widespread support for most Great Society programs, the War on Poverty increasingly became the focal point of domestic criticisms from the left and right. On the left, frustrated Americans recognized the president\u2019s resistance to further empowering poor minority communities and also assailed the growing war in Vietnam, the cost of which undercut domestic poverty spending. As racial unrest and violence swept across urban centers, critics from the right lambasted federal spending for \u201cunworthy\u201d citizens.\r\n\r\nJohnson had secured a series of meaningful civil rights laws, but then things began to stall. Days after the ratification of the Voting Rights Act, race riots broke out in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles. Rioting in Watts stemmed from local African American frustrations with residential segregation, police brutality, and racial profiling. Waves of riots rocked American cities every summer thereafter. Particularly destructive riots occurred in 1967\u2014two summers later\u2014in Newark and Detroit. Each resulted in deaths, injuries, arrests, and millions of dollars in property damage. In spite of black achievements, problems persisted for many African Americans. The phenomenon of \u201cwhite flight\u201d\u2014when whites in metropolitan areas fled city centers for the suburbs\u2014often resulted in resegregated residential patterns. Limited access to economic and social opportunities in urban areas bred discord. In addition to reminding the nation that the Civil Rights Movement was a complex, ongoing event without a concrete endpoint, the unrest in northern cities reinforced the notion that the struggle did not occur solely in the South. Many Americans also viewed the riots as an indictment of the Great Society, President Johnson\u2019s sweeping agenda of domestic programs that sought to remedy inner-city ills by offering better access to education, jobs, medical care, housing, and other forms of social welfare. The Civil Rights Movement was never the same.3<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nThe Civil Rights Acts, the Voting Rights Acts, and the War on Poverty provoked conservative resistance and were catalysts for the rise of Republicans in the South and West. However, subsequent presidents and Congresses have left intact the bulk of the Great Society, including Medicare and Medicaid, food stamps, federal spending for arts and literature, and Head Start. Even Community Action Programs, so fraught during their few short years of activity, inspired and empowered a new generation of minority and poverty community activists who had never before felt, as one put it, that \u201cthis government is with us.\u201d4<\/sup><\/a>\r\n

Notes<\/h4>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Lyndon Baines Johnson, \u201cRemarks at the University of Michigan,\u201d May 22, 1964, Public<\/em> Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1964<\/em> (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965), 704. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  2. See, for instance, Wesley G. Phelps, A People\u2019s War on Poverty: Urban Politics and Grassroots Activists in Houston<\/em> (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Ibid. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Guian A. McKee, \u201c\u2018This Government is with Us\u2019: Lyndon Johnson and the Grassroots War on Poverty,\u201d in Annelise Orleck and Lisa Gayle Hazirjian, eds., The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964\u20131980<\/em> (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
    \n
    \"Photograph
    The day President Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 US Government. Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

     <\/p>\n

    On a May morning in 1964, President Johnson laid out a sweeping vision for a package of domestic reforms known as the Great Society. Speaking before that year\u2019s graduates of the University of Michigan, Johnson called for \u201can end to poverty and racial injustice\u201d and challenged both the graduates and American people to \u201cenrich and elevate our national life, and to advance the quality of our American civilization.\u201d At its heart, he promised, the Great Society would uplift racially and economically disfranchised Americans, too long denied access to federal guarantees of equal democratic and economic opportunity, while simultaneously raising all Americans\u2019 standards and quality of life.1<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    The Great Society\u2019s legislation was breathtaking in scope, and many of its programs and agencies are still with us today. Most importantly, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 codified federal support for many of the Civil Rights Movement\u2019s goals by prohibiting job discrimination, abolishing the segregation of public accommodations, and providing vigorous federal oversight of southern states\u2019 election laws in order to guarantee minority access to the ballot. Ninety years after Reconstruction, these measures effectively ended Jim Crow.<\/p>\n

    In addition to civil rights, the Great Society took on a range of quality-of-life concerns that seemed suddenly solvable in a society of such affluence. It established the first federal food stamp program. Medicare and Medicaid would ensure access to quality medical care for the aged and poor. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was the first sustained and significant federal investment in public education, totaling more than $1 billion. Significant funds were poured into colleges and universities. The Great Society also established the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities, federal investments in arts and letters that fund American cultural expression to this day.<\/p>\n

    While these programs persisted and even thrived, in the years immediately following this flurry of legislative activity, the national conversation surrounding Johnson\u2019s domestic agenda largely focused on the $3 billion spent on War on Poverty programming within the Great Society\u2019s Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) of 1964. No EOA program was more controversial than Community Action, considered the cornerstone antipoverty program. Johnson\u2019s antipoverty planners felt that the key to uplifting disfranchised and impoverished Americans was involving poor and marginalized citizens in the actual administration of poverty programs, what they called \u201cmaximum feasible participation.\u201d Community Action Programs would give disfranchised Americans a seat at the table in planning and executing federally funded programs that were meant to benefit them\u2014a significant sea change in the nation\u2019s efforts to confront poverty, which had historically relied on local political and business elites or charitable organizations for administration. 2<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    In fact, Johnson himself had never conceived of poor Americans running their own poverty programs. While the president\u2019s rhetoric offered a stirring vision of the future, he had singularly old-school notions for how his poverty policies would work. In contrast to \u201cmaximum feasible participation,\u201d the president imagined a second New Deal: local elite-run public works camps that would instill masculine virtues in unemployed young men. Community Action almost entirely bypassed local administrations and sought to build grassroots civil rights and community advocacy organizations, many of which had originated in the broader Civil Rights Movement. Despite widespread support for most Great Society programs, the War on Poverty increasingly became the focal point of domestic criticisms from the left and right. On the left, frustrated Americans recognized the president\u2019s resistance to further empowering poor minority communities and also assailed the growing war in Vietnam, the cost of which undercut domestic poverty spending. As racial unrest and violence swept across urban centers, critics from the right lambasted federal spending for \u201cunworthy\u201d citizens.<\/p>\n

    Johnson had secured a series of meaningful civil rights laws, but then things began to stall. Days after the ratification of the Voting Rights Act, race riots broke out in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles. Rioting in Watts stemmed from local African American frustrations with residential segregation, police brutality, and racial profiling. Waves of riots rocked American cities every summer thereafter. Particularly destructive riots occurred in 1967\u2014two summers later\u2014in Newark and Detroit. Each resulted in deaths, injuries, arrests, and millions of dollars in property damage. In spite of black achievements, problems persisted for many African Americans. The phenomenon of \u201cwhite flight\u201d\u2014when whites in metropolitan areas fled city centers for the suburbs\u2014often resulted in resegregated residential patterns. Limited access to economic and social opportunities in urban areas bred discord. In addition to reminding the nation that the Civil Rights Movement was a complex, ongoing event without a concrete endpoint, the unrest in northern cities reinforced the notion that the struggle did not occur solely in the South. Many Americans also viewed the riots as an indictment of the Great Society, President Johnson\u2019s sweeping agenda of domestic programs that sought to remedy inner-city ills by offering better access to education, jobs, medical care, housing, and other forms of social welfare. The Civil Rights Movement was never the same.3<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    The Civil Rights Acts, the Voting Rights Acts, and the War on Poverty provoked conservative resistance and were catalysts for the rise of Republicans in the South and West. However, subsequent presidents and Congresses have left intact the bulk of the Great Society, including Medicare and Medicaid, food stamps, federal spending for arts and literature, and Head Start. Even Community Action Programs, so fraught during their few short years of activity, inspired and empowered a new generation of minority and poverty community activists who had never before felt, as one put it, that \u201cthis government is with us.\u201d4<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    Notes<\/h4>\n
      \n
    1. Lyndon Baines Johnson, \u201cRemarks at the University of Michigan,\u201d May 22, 1964, Public<\/em> Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1964<\/em> (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965), 704. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    2. See, for instance, Wesley G. Phelps, A People\u2019s War on Poverty: Urban Politics and Grassroots Activists in Houston<\/em> (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    3. Ibid. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    4. Guian A. McKee, \u201c\u2018This Government is with Us\u2019: Lyndon Johnson and the Grassroots War on Poverty,\u201d in Annelise Orleck and Lisa Gayle Hazirjian, eds., The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964\u20131980<\/em> (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":11,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-255","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":34,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/255","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/255\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":509,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/255\/revisions\/509"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/34"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/255\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=255"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=255"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=255"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=255"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}