{"id":143,"date":"2023-03-13T15:32:41","date_gmt":"2023-03-13T15:32:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/chapter\/module-3-15\/"},"modified":"2023-04-27T21:14:29","modified_gmt":"2023-04-27T21:14:29","slug":"module-3-15","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/chapter\/module-3-15\/","title":{"raw":"3.15 \u201cThe New Negro\u201d","rendered":"3.15 \u201cThe New Negro\u201d"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\nJust as cultural limits loosened across the nation, the 1920s represented a period of serious self-reflection among African Americans, most especially those in northern ghettos. New York City was a popular destination of American blacks during the Great Migration. The city\u2019s black population grew 257 percent, from 91,709 in 1910 to 327,706 by 1930 (the white population grew only 20 percent).20 Moreover, by 1930, some 98,620 foreign-born blacks had migrated to the United States. Nearly half made their home in Manhattan\u2019s Harlem district.1<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nHarlem originally lay between Fifth Avenue and Eighth Avenue and 130th Street to 145th Street. By 1930, the district had expanded to 155th Street and was home to 164,000 people, mostly African Americans. Continuous relocation to \u201cthe greatest Negro City in the world\u201d exacerbated problems with crime, health, housing, and unemployment.2<\/sup><\/a> Nevertheless, it brought together a mass of black people energized by race pride, military service in World War I, the urban environment, and, for many, ideas of Pan-Africanism or Garveyism (discussed shortly). James Weldon Johnson called Harlem \u201cthe Culture Capital.\u201d3<\/sup><\/a> The area\u2019s cultural ferment produced the Harlem Renaissance and fostered what was then termed the New Negro Movement.\r\n\r\nAlain Locke did not coin the term New Negro<\/em>, but he did much to popularize it. In the 1925 book The New Negro<\/em>, Locke proclaimed that the generation of subservience was no more\u2014\u201cwe are achieving something like a spiritual emancipation.\u201d Bringing together writings by men and women, young and old, black and white, Locke produced an anthology that was of African Americans, rather than only about them. The book joined many others. Popular Harlem Renaissance writers published some twenty-six novels, ten volumes of poetry, and countless short stories between 1922 and 1935.4<\/sup><\/a> Alongside the well-known Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, female writers like Jessie Redmon Fauset and Zora Neale Hurston published nearly one third of these novels. While themes varied, the literature frequently explored and countered pervading stereotypes and forms of American racial prejudice.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_582\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"519\"]\"Caption: Aaron Douglas, \u201cAspects of Negro Life,\u201d painted in 1934. Courtesy of New York Public Library<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n

\u201cI, Too\u201d by Langston Hughes (1925)<\/p>\r\n

I, too, sing America.<\/p>\r\n

I am the darker brother.<\/p>\r\n

They send me to eat in the kitchen<\/p>\r\n

When company comes,<\/p>\r\n

But I laugh,<\/p>\r\n

And eat well,<\/p>\r\n

And grow strong.<\/p>\r\n

Tomorrow,<\/p>\r\n

I'll be at the table<\/p>\r\n

When company comes.<\/p>\r\n

Nobody'll dare<\/p>\r\n

Say to me,<\/p>\r\n

\"Eat in the kitchen,\"<\/p>\r\n

Then.<\/p>\r\n

Besides,<\/p>\r\n

They'll see how beautiful I am<\/p>\r\n

And be ashamed--<\/p>\r\n

I, too, am America.5<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n

<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Harlem Renaissance was manifested in theater, art, and music. For the first time, Broadway presented black actors in serious roles. The 1924 production <\/span>Dixie to Broadway<\/em> was the first all-black show with mainstream showings.6<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In art, Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Aaron Douglas, and Palmer Hayden showcased black cultural heritage and captured the population\u2019s current experience. In music, jazz rocketed in popularity. Eager to hear \u201creal jazz,\u201d whites journeyed to Harlem\u2019s Cotton Club and Smalls. Next to Greenwich Village, Harlem\u2019s nightclubs and speakeasies (venues where alcohol was publicly consumed) presented a place where sexual freedom and gay life thrived. Unfortunately, while headliners like Duke Ellington were hired to entertain at Harlem\u2019s venues, the surrounding black community was usually excluded. Furthermore, black performers were often restricted from restroom use and relegated to service door entry. As the Renaissance faded to a close, several Harlem Renaissance artists went on to produce important works indicating that this movement was but one component in African American\u2019s long history of cultural and intellectual achievements.7<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]\"Photograph Garveyism, criticized as too radical, nevertheless formed a substantial following, and was a major stimulus for later black nationalistic movements. Photograph of Marcus Garvey, August 5, 1924. Library of Congress<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n

The explosion of African American self-expression found multiple outlets in politics. In the 1910s and 1920s, perhaps no one so attracted disaffected black activists as Marcus Garvey. Garvey was a Jamaican publisher and labor organizer who arrived in New York City in 1916. Within just a few years of his arrival, he built the largest black nationalist organization in the world, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).<\/sup>8<\/sup> <\/a>Inspired by Pan-Africanism and Booker T. Washington\u2019s model of industrial education, and critical of what he saw as Du Bois\u2019s elitist strategies in service of black elites, Garvey sought to promote racial pride, encourage black economic independence, and root out racial oppression in Africa and the Diaspora.9<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\r\nHeadquartered in Harlem, the UNIA published a newspaper, Negro World<\/em>, and organized elaborate parades in which members, known as Garveyites, dressed in ornate, militaristic regalia and marched down city streets. The organization criticized the slow pace of the judicial focus of the NAACP as well as its acceptance of memberships and funds from whites. \u201cFor the Negro to depend on the ballot and his industrial progress alone,\u201d Garvey opined, \u201cwill be hopeless as it does not help him when he is lynched, burned, jim-crowed, and segregated.\u201d10<\/sup><\/a> In 1919, the UNIA announced plans to develop a shipping company called the Black Star Line as part of a plan that pushed for blacks to reject the political system and to \u201creturn to Africa\u201d instead.\u201d Most of the investments came in the form of shares purchased by UNIA members, many of whom heard Garvey give rousing speeches across the country about the importance of establishing commercial ventures between African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and Africans.11<\/sup><\/a>\r\n\r\nGarvey\u2019s detractors disparaged these public displays and poorly managed business ventures, and they criticized Garvey for peddling empty gestures in place of measures that addressed the material concerns of African Americans. NAACP leaders depicted Garvey\u2019s plan as one that simply said, \u201cGive up! Surrender! The struggle is useless.\u201d Enflamed by his aggressive attacks on other black activists and his radical ideas of racial independence, many African American and Afro-Caribbean leaders worked with government officials and launched the \u201cGarvey Must Go\u201d campaign, which culminated in his 1922 indictment and 1925 imprisonment and subsequent deportation for \u201cusing the mails for fraudulent purposes.\u201d The UNIA never recovered its popularity or financial support, even after Garvey\u2019s pardon in 1927, but his movement made a lasting impact on black consciousness in the United States and abroad. He inspired the likes of Malcolm X, whose parents were Garveyites, and Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana. Garvey\u2019s message, perhaps best captured by his rallying cry, \u201cUp, you mighty race,\u201d resonated with African Americans who found in Garveyism a dignity not granted them in their everyday lives. In that sense, it was all too typical of the Harlem Renaissance.12<\/sup><\/a>\r\n

Notes<\/h4>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Philip Kasinitz, Caribbean New York: Black Immigrants and the Politics of Race<\/em> (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), 25.\"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  2. James Weldon Johnson, \u201cHarlem: The Culture Capital,\u201d in Alain Locke, The New Negro: An Interpretation<\/em> (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1925), 301. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Ibid., 301 \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Joan Marter, ed., The Grove Encyclopedia of American Art, Volume 1<\/em> (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011), 448.\"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Langston Hughes, \"I, Too,\" Collected Poems by Langston Hughes<\/em>, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. James F. Wilson, Bulldaggers, Pansies, and Chocolate Babies: Performance, Race, and Sexuality in in the Harlem Renaissance<\/em> (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010), 116. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  7. Cary D. Wintz and Paul Finkelman, Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, Vol. 2<\/em> (New York: Routledge, 2004), 910\u2013911. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  8. For Garvey, see Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey<\/em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society<\/em> (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1986); and Ula Yvette Taylor, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey <\/em>(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  9. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America<\/em> (London: Verso, 1998). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  10. Marcus Garvey, \u201cThe True Solution to the Negro Problem \u2013 1922,\u201d in The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey: Africa for Africans<\/em>, ed. Amy Jacques Garvey (London: Routledge, 2006), 39. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  11. Grant, Negro with a Hat; <\/em>Stein, World of Marcus Garvey<\/em>; Taylor, Veiled Garvey<\/em>. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
  12. Grant, Negro with a Hat; <\/em>Stein, World of Marcus Garvey<\/em>; Taylor, Veiled Garvey<\/em>. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
    \n

    Just as cultural limits loosened across the nation, the 1920s represented a period of serious self-reflection among African Americans, most especially those in northern ghettos. New York City was a popular destination of American blacks during the Great Migration. The city\u2019s black population grew 257 percent, from 91,709 in 1910 to 327,706 by 1930 (the white population grew only 20 percent).20 Moreover, by 1930, some 98,620 foreign-born blacks had migrated to the United States. Nearly half made their home in Manhattan\u2019s Harlem district.1<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    Harlem originally lay between Fifth Avenue and Eighth Avenue and 130th Street to 145th Street. By 1930, the district had expanded to 155th Street and was home to 164,000 people, mostly African Americans. Continuous relocation to \u201cthe greatest Negro City in the world\u201d exacerbated problems with crime, health, housing, and unemployment.2<\/sup><\/a> Nevertheless, it brought together a mass of black people energized by race pride, military service in World War I, the urban environment, and, for many, ideas of Pan-Africanism or Garveyism (discussed shortly). James Weldon Johnson called Harlem \u201cthe Culture Capital.\u201d3<\/sup><\/a> The area\u2019s cultural ferment produced the Harlem Renaissance and fostered what was then termed the New Negro Movement.<\/p>\n

    Alain Locke did not coin the term New Negro<\/em>, but he did much to popularize it. In the 1925 book The New Negro<\/em>, Locke proclaimed that the generation of subservience was no more\u2014\u201cwe are achieving something like a spiritual emancipation.\u201d Bringing together writings by men and women, young and old, black and white, Locke produced an anthology that was of African Americans, rather than only about them. The book joined many others. Popular Harlem Renaissance writers published some twenty-six novels, ten volumes of poetry, and countless short stories between 1922 and 1935.4<\/sup><\/a> Alongside the well-known Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, female writers like Jessie Redmon Fauset and Zora Neale Hurston published nearly one third of these novels. While themes varied, the literature frequently explored and countered pervading stereotypes and forms of American racial prejudice.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \"Caption:
    Aaron Douglas, \u201cAspects of Negro Life,\u201d painted in 1934. Courtesy of New York Public Library<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
    \n

    \u201cI, Too\u201d by Langston Hughes (1925)<\/p>\n

    I, too, sing America.<\/p>\n

    I am the darker brother.<\/p>\n

    They send me to eat in the kitchen<\/p>\n

    When company comes,<\/p>\n

    But I laugh,<\/p>\n

    And eat well,<\/p>\n

    And grow strong.<\/p>\n

    Tomorrow,<\/p>\n

    I’ll be at the table<\/p>\n

    When company comes.<\/p>\n

    Nobody’ll dare<\/p>\n

    Say to me,<\/p>\n

    “Eat in the kitchen,”<\/p>\n

    Then.<\/p>\n

    Besides,<\/p>\n

    They’ll see how beautiful I am<\/p>\n

    And be ashamed–<\/p>\n

    I, too, am America.5<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

    \n<\/div>\n

    The Harlem Renaissance was manifested in theater, art, and music. For the first time, Broadway presented black actors in serious roles. The 1924 production <\/span>Dixie to Broadway<\/em> was the first all-black show with mainstream showings.6<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In art, Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Aaron Douglas, and Palmer Hayden showcased black cultural heritage and captured the population\u2019s current experience. In music, jazz rocketed in popularity. Eager to hear \u201creal jazz,\u201d whites journeyed to Harlem\u2019s Cotton Club and Smalls. Next to Greenwich Village, Harlem\u2019s nightclubs and speakeasies (venues where alcohol was publicly consumed) presented a place where sexual freedom and gay life thrived. Unfortunately, while headliners like Duke Ellington were hired to entertain at Harlem\u2019s venues, the surrounding black community was usually excluded. Furthermore, black performers were often restricted from restroom use and relegated to service door entry. As the Renaissance faded to a close, several Harlem Renaissance artists went on to produce important works indicating that this movement was but one component in African American\u2019s long history of cultural and intellectual achievements.7<\/a><\/sup><\/span><\/p>\n

    \n

     <\/p>\n

    \"Photograph
    Garveyism, criticized as too radical, nevertheless formed a substantial following, and was a major stimulus for later black nationalistic movements. Photograph of Marcus Garvey, August 5, 1924. Library of Congress<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    The explosion of African American self-expression found multiple outlets in politics. In the 1910s and 1920s, perhaps no one so attracted disaffected black activists as Marcus Garvey. Garvey was a Jamaican publisher and labor organizer who arrived in New York City in 1916. Within just a few years of his arrival, he built the largest black nationalist organization in the world, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).<\/sup>8<\/sup> <\/a>Inspired by Pan-Africanism and Booker T. Washington\u2019s model of industrial education, and critical of what he saw as Du Bois\u2019s elitist strategies in service of black elites, Garvey sought to promote racial pride, encourage black economic independence, and root out racial oppression in Africa and the Diaspora.9<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    Headquartered in Harlem, the UNIA published a newspaper, Negro World<\/em>, and organized elaborate parades in which members, known as Garveyites, dressed in ornate, militaristic regalia and marched down city streets. The organization criticized the slow pace of the judicial focus of the NAACP as well as its acceptance of memberships and funds from whites. \u201cFor the Negro to depend on the ballot and his industrial progress alone,\u201d Garvey opined, \u201cwill be hopeless as it does not help him when he is lynched, burned, jim-crowed, and segregated.\u201d10<\/sup><\/a> In 1919, the UNIA announced plans to develop a shipping company called the Black Star Line as part of a plan that pushed for blacks to reject the political system and to \u201creturn to Africa\u201d instead.\u201d Most of the investments came in the form of shares purchased by UNIA members, many of whom heard Garvey give rousing speeches across the country about the importance of establishing commercial ventures between African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and Africans.11<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    Garvey\u2019s detractors disparaged these public displays and poorly managed business ventures, and they criticized Garvey for peddling empty gestures in place of measures that addressed the material concerns of African Americans. NAACP leaders depicted Garvey\u2019s plan as one that simply said, \u201cGive up! Surrender! The struggle is useless.\u201d Enflamed by his aggressive attacks on other black activists and his radical ideas of racial independence, many African American and Afro-Caribbean leaders worked with government officials and launched the \u201cGarvey Must Go\u201d campaign, which culminated in his 1922 indictment and 1925 imprisonment and subsequent deportation for \u201cusing the mails for fraudulent purposes.\u201d The UNIA never recovered its popularity or financial support, even after Garvey\u2019s pardon in 1927, but his movement made a lasting impact on black consciousness in the United States and abroad. He inspired the likes of Malcolm X, whose parents were Garveyites, and Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana. Garvey\u2019s message, perhaps best captured by his rallying cry, \u201cUp, you mighty race,\u201d resonated with African Americans who found in Garveyism a dignity not granted them in their everyday lives. In that sense, it was all too typical of the Harlem Renaissance.12<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    Notes<\/h4>\n
      \n
    1. Philip Kasinitz, Caribbean New York: Black Immigrants and the Politics of Race<\/em> (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), 25.\"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    2. James Weldon Johnson, \u201cHarlem: The Culture Capital,\u201d in Alain Locke, The New Negro: An Interpretation<\/em> (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1925), 301. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    3. Ibid., 301 \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    4. Joan Marter, ed., The Grove Encyclopedia of American Art, Volume 1<\/em> (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011), 448.\"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    5. Langston Hughes, “I, Too,” Collected Poems by Langston Hughes<\/em>, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.<\/li>\n
    6. James F. Wilson, Bulldaggers, Pansies, and Chocolate Babies: Performance, Race, and Sexuality in in the Harlem Renaissance<\/em> (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010), 116. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    7. Cary D. Wintz and Paul Finkelman, Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, Vol. 2<\/em> (New York: Routledge, 2004), 910\u2013911. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    8. For Garvey, see Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey<\/em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society<\/em> (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1986); and Ula Yvette Taylor, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey <\/em>(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    9. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America<\/em> (London: Verso, 1998). \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    10. Marcus Garvey, \u201cThe True Solution to the Negro Problem \u2013 1922,\u201d in The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey: Africa for Africans<\/em>, ed. Amy Jacques Garvey (London: Routledge, 2006), 39. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    11. Grant, Negro with a Hat; <\/em>Stein, World of Marcus Garvey<\/em>; Taylor, Veiled Garvey<\/em>. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n
    12. Grant, Negro with a Hat; <\/em>Stein, World of Marcus Garvey<\/em>; Taylor, Veiled Garvey<\/em>. \"image\"<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":39,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-143","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":30,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":677,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143\/revisions\/677"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/30"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=143"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=143"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=143"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppschis1220ushistsincecivilwar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=143"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}