{"id":71,"date":"2025-08-29T20:42:15","date_gmt":"2025-08-29T20:42:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/chapter\/chapter-5-nonverbal-communication\/"},"modified":"2026-03-10T17:33:41","modified_gmt":"2026-03-10T17:33:41","slug":"chapter-5-nonverbal-communication","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/chapter\/chapter-5-nonverbal-communication\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication","rendered":"Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"chapter-5-\u2013-nonverbal-communication\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p data-start=\"217\" data-end=\"279\">When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"283\" data-end=\"369\">Define nonverbal communication and explain how it differs from verbal communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"372\" data-end=\"486\">Identify key principles of nonverbal communication and describe how they contribute to intercultural competence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"489\" data-end=\"543\">Recognize common misconceptions about communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"546\" data-end=\"605\">Understand and interpret nonverbal codes across cultures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"608\" data-end=\"759\">Apply theories related to conversational distance, contact and noncontact cultures, monochronic and polychronic time, and the halo and horns effects.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"762\" data-end=\"868\">Examine the role of cultural spaces and reflect on their importance within your own artistic experience.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"155\" data-end=\"490\">Introduction<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"155\" data-end=\"490\">Nonverbal communication is a vital part of intercultural interaction. In many situations, we\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">derive more meaning from\u00a0<em>the way<\/em> something is said than from the\u00a0<\/span>words themselves. As we learned in the chapter on verbal communication, some cultures place more emphasis on context, what is not said, than on explicit verbal messages. Nonverbal communication includes all aspects of interaction that fall outside of spoken or written words.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"155\" data-end=\"490\">This can involve gestures, facial expressions, posture, distance, eye contact, touch, vocal characteristics, and other nonverbal cues. In short, nonverbal communication\u00a0<em data-start=\"754\" data-end=\"784\"><span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">encompasses\u00a0<em>everything beyond the spoken word<\/em><\/span>. <\/em>Nonverbal messages are pervasive; they surround us constantly. A laugh, a smile, a clap, a pointed finger, a whistle, or a snap, all of these convey meaning, whether we intend them to or not. Nonverbal messages can be deliberate or unintentional, but they always contribute to how others understand us.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1093\" data-end=\"1327\">While verbal and nonverbal communication share similarities, they are both symbolic and convey meaning; they also differ in significant ways. Understanding these differences is key to becoming competent in intercultural communication.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"153\" data-end=\"195\">Principles of Nonverbal Communication<\/h2>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"290\" data-end=\"342\">Nonverbal Communication Uses Multiple Channels<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"343\" data-end=\"499\">Verbal communication relies on words, transmitted through a single channel at a time. We may speak, read, write, or listen, but each of these acts uses a separate channel. Nonverbal communication, however, works through many channels simultaneously. When talking with a friend, you may hear their tone of voice, observe their facial expressions, notice their gestures, register eye contact, and perhaps exchange touch, all while interpreting their words. Similarly, if you want to signal interest to a romantic partner, you might dress up, wear perfume or cologne, style your hair, maintain eye contact, and laugh at their jokes. All of these cues together convey your message.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1009\" data-end=\"1056\">Nonverbal Communication Is More Ambiguous<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1057\" data-end=\"1348\">Unlike most verbal messages, the meaning of nonverbal communication is often learned unconsciously and is open to multiple interpretations. A smile may signal friendliness, comfort, nervousness, or sarcasm. Eye contact may suggest intimacy, humor, or challenge, depending on the situation. This ambiguity makes nonverbal messages particularly difficult to interpret across cultural boundaries. Unlike words, which often have agreed-upon dictionary definitions, there is no universal \u201ctranslation guide\u201d for nonverbal behaviors. Some cues are culturally learned, such as the handshake in the United States, often paired with a verbal greeting like, \u201cHi, I\u2019m Karen,\u201d in business settings.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1750\" data-end=\"1795\">Nonverbal Communication Has Fewer Rules<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1796\" data-end=\"2231\">Part of the ambiguity of nonverbal communication stems from the fact that fewer formal rules govern it than those that govern verbal communication. Spoken and written language have strict rules for grammar, spelling, usage, and pronunciation. By contrast, nonverbal behaviors are often governed by informal norms. Parents may say, \u201cIt\u2019s not polite to stare,\u201d but such statements are more about etiquette than fixed rules for interpreting meaning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"2233\" data-end=\"2276\">Nonverbal Communication Is Continuous<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"2277\" data-end=\"2745\">Unlike verbal communication, which starts and stops, nonverbal communication is ongoing. In face-to-face interaction, you communicate nonverbally before you say a word\u2014through posture, appearance, or facial expression\u2014and you continue to do so after the conversation ends. Even in digital spaces, your usernames, profile pictures, emojis, and stylistic choices convey nonverbal messages. In short, while you can stop talking, you cannot stop communicating nonverbally.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"425\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image32.jpeg\" alt=\"A young child with brown hair a pink jacket and pink shoes stands on a step to look at fish being displayed in takes at an open market. \" width=\"425\" height=\"319\" \/> Figure 5.1 \u2013 A young child touches a fish through the glass at the market[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"129\" data-end=\"201\">Nonverbal Messages Communicate Emotions, Meaning, and Relationships<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"203\" data-end=\"499\">When we interact, we rely on much more than words to make sense of meaning. Nonverbal communication encompasses the entire body, the space we occupy, the time we allocate, and even how we manage silence. A wink, a nod, or a pause can all carry significant meaning, often shaping the interpretation behind our messages. Nonverbal cues often reveal our emotions before we consciously register them. A sigh, raised eyebrow, or shift in posture can reveal feelings we didn't intend to show. Because these behaviors occur quickly and often unconsciously, unintentional nonverbal signals may contradict what we <em data-start=\"803\" data-end=\"808\">say<\/em> we are feeling or thinking. This becomes especially important when people send <em data-start=\"891\" data-end=\"907\">mixed messages, <\/em>when verbal and nonverbal signals do not align (Burgoon &amp; Hoobler, 2002). In such situations, we almost always trust nonverbal behavior because it seems more authentic or less controlled. Still, it is easy to misinterpret these cues, especially across cultures, where meanings vary.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1197\" data-end=\"1394\">Nonverbal behavior also communicates power and status. Touch, posture, gestures, and the way space is claimed or shared all signal how relationships are structured and whose influence is greater.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"1396\" data-end=\"1450\">Nonverbal and Verbal Communication Work Together<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1744\">Verbal and nonverbal communication are not separate systems; they work together to create meaning (Jones &amp; LeBaron, 2002). As Birdwhistell (1973) noted, we never experience them in isolation. A person\u2019s tone of voice, facial expression, and gestures all frame how their words are understood. Nonverbal communication can reinforce what is spoken, substitute for words when they are unnecessary, or even contradict what is said. However, it cannot\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><em>entirely replace<\/em> words<\/span>. We need the verbal message as the anchor, while nonverbal cues add depth, emotion, and relational context.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1746\" data-end=\"2025\"><strong>How Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Work Together<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"height: 175px;\" width=\"761\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 105.432px;\">Relationship<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Description<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Example<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 105.432px;\"><strong>Reinforce<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Nonverbal cues strengthen or emphasize what is said.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Saying <em>\u201cYes\u201d<\/em> while nodding.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 105.432px;\"><strong>Substitute<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Nonverbal cues replace words when speech is unnecessary or impossible.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Shrugging shoulders instead of saying <em>\u201cI don\u2019t know.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 105.432px;\"><strong>Contradict<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Nonverbal cues conflict with verbal messages, creating mixed signals.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Smiling while saying, <em>\u201cI\u2019m so angry.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"546\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image33.jpeg\" alt=\"A customer communicating non verbally by holding up two fingers to an employee at a food truck while reaching for his wallet. The employee is also holding up two fingers, indicating she understands the customer.\" width=\"546\" height=\"383\" \/> Figure 5.2 \u2013 A customer and worker communicating with gestures[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"118\" data-end=\"171\">Nonverbal Communication is Influenced by Culture<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"173\" data-end=\"575\">The strong connection between culture and nonverbal communication makes intercultural interaction especially complex. While some nonverbal cues can be learned, their meanings are often ambiguous and are guided by fewer formal rules than those of language. As a result, it typically takes years of immersion in a culture to fully comprehend the nuanced meanings of its nonverbal practices (Chen &amp; Starosta, 2005). For example, during a 2009 meeting with the Emperor of Japan, then-U.S. President Barack Obama bowed deeply as a gesture of respect. In the United States, some conservative commentators criticized the bow, with former Vice President Dick Cheney calling it inappropriate. In Japan, however, the gesture was understood as respectful, though many observers noted that the 45-degree bend, or <em data-start=\"965\" data-end=\"976\">seikeirei<\/em> bow, was more formal than necessary.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1017\" data-end=\"1217\">This example illustrates how the same nonverbal behavior can be interpreted differently across cultures, underscoring the importance of cultural context when interpreting nonverbal messages.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"196\" data-end=\"245\">Misconceptions About Nonverbal Communication<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"247\" data-end=\"472\">Several common misconceptions about nonverbal communication persist and can hinder the development of competent intercultural communicators. These beliefs are so ingrained that you may find it difficult to let them go.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"519\">People Can Read Nonverbal Communication<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"520\" data-end=\"944\">Popular culture is full of references to \u201cbody language\u201d and promises that you can learn to read your boss, friend, or partner \u201clike a book.\u201d The problem is that nonverbal communication is ambiguous, guided by fewer rules than language, and always co-created with verbal communication. As a result, there is no universal shorthand or \u201clanguage of the body\u201d that can be applied consistently across contexts (Haller &amp; Peeters, 2019). Yes, people assign meaning to nonverbal behaviors, just as they do with words. But unlike verbal language, nonverbal communication cannot be read with certainty. So-called experts who claim to read people flawlessly are rarely any better at assigning meaning than anyone else.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1226\" data-end=\"1300\">Deception Can Be Accurately Detected Through Nonverbal Communication<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1301\" data-end=\"1578\">Another widespread belief is that we can spot deception through nonverbal cues. If that were true, poker players would never win a bluff, politicians would always tell the truth, teenagers could not sneak past their parents, and romantic partners would never fudge the truth. Decades of research show that no single nonverbal cue, whether it\u2019s eye movement, facial expression, or vocal tone, consistently reveals deception. At best, people are about as accurate at guessing lies as they are at flipping a coin.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"1821\" data-end=\"1864\">Types of Nonverbal Communication Codes<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1866\" data-end=\"2264\">Nonverbal communication is powerful because humans utilize various aspects of behavior, appearance, and environment to convey meaning. Scholars refer to these channels as <em data-start=\"2033\" data-end=\"2064\">nonverbal communication codes<\/em> (Burgoon &amp; Hoobler, 2002). While cultural patterns are embedded in these codes, they should be understood as guidelines rather than stereotypes, since there is significant variation even within cultures.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"2266\" data-end=\"2280\">Kinesics<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"2281\" data-end=\"2555\"><em data-start=\"2281\" data-end=\"2291\">Kinesics<\/em> comes from the Greek word <em data-start=\"2318\" data-end=\"2327\">kinesis<\/em>, meaning \u201cmovement.\u201d This category includes facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and posture. Kinesics is often considered the most influential nonverbal code because movement communicates such a wide range of meanings.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"544\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image34.jpeg\" alt=\"A child looking at the camera with their mouth wide open like they are going to growl at the camera, or start laughing, or crying.\" width=\"544\" height=\"363\" \/> Figure 5.3 \u2013 A very expressive child[\/caption]\r\n<h3 data-start=\"222\" data-end=\"246\">Facial Expressions<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"247\" data-end=\"611\">Facial expressions convey a wide range of emotions, and we often gauge others' feelings by observing them. The popularity of emojis in electronic communication underscores the central role that facial expressions play in conveying meaning. Some scholars even argue that facial expressions rank first among all forms of communication (Knapp &amp; Hall, 2002).<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"613\" data-end=\"1287\">However, cultural rules strongly influence how facial expressions are displayed and interpreted. For example, while most humans can smile, the meaning of a smile is not universal. In Russia, smiling may be perceived as foolishness or manipulation, so people often pose for family photos with flat or stern expressions. Many Hispanic cultures value a proud and elegant demeanor, which may lead to a more reserved approach, including not smiling. In Japan, smiling can signal respect\u2014or serve to mask one\u2019s true feelings. In contrast, in the United States, smiling is often expected to show happiness, gratitude, or friendliness, and we even smile when nervous to smooth over interactions (Solomon, 2017).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1289\" data-end=\"1306\">Eye Contact<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1307\" data-end=\"2052\">Eye contact plays multiple roles in communication. It can express emotions, regulate the flow of conversation, signal attentiveness, display respect or status, and sometimes even communicate hostility or aggression (Burgoon, Buller, &amp; Woodall, 1996). Yet cultural patterns of eye contact vary widely. In the United States, eye contact often conveys confidence, interest, or honesty, but in crowded public spaces, such as buses or city sidewalks, people may deliberately avoid it. In France, by contrast, maintaining eye contact in public can convey curiosity or attraction. In the Middle East, direct eye contact is often considered inappropriate, while in many Asian contexts, avoiding eye contact is a sign of politeness and respect.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"2054\" data-end=\"2068\">Gestures<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"2069\" data-end=\"2268\">[pb_glossary id=\"1200\"]Gestures[\/pb_glossary] and movements of the hands and arms are another powerful form of nonverbal communication. Scholars typically identify four main categories: <strong data-start=\"2214\" data-end=\"2265\">emblems, illustrators, regulators, and adaptors<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"2270\" data-end=\"3268\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2270\" data-end=\"2675\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2272\" data-end=\"2675\"><strong data-start=\"2272\" data-end=\"2283\">[pb_glossary id=\"1259\"]Emblems[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are gestures that carry a specific verbal meaning and can replace or reinforce words (Ekman, 1976). For instance, a driver in the United States who has been cut off in traffic might make a rude hand gesture that communicates frustration without saying a word. However, because emblems are culture-specific, the intended meaning may be lost or misunderstood by someone from another culture.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2676\" data-end=\"2867\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2678\" data-end=\"2867\"><strong data-start=\"2678\" data-end=\"2694\">[pb_glossary id=\"1153\"]Illustrators[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> accompany speech to clarify or emphasize a message. For example, a grandfather telling a fishing story may spread his hands far apart to show just how large the fish was.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2868\" data-end=\"3055\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2870\" data-end=\"3055\"><strong data-start=\"2870\" data-end=\"2884\">[pb_glossary id=\"964\"]Regulators[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> help control the flow of interaction (McLean, 2003). Holding up a hand to signal \u201cstop\u201d or nodding to encourage someone to continue speaking are both standard regulators.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3056\" data-end=\"3268\">\r\n<p data-start=\"3058\" data-end=\"3268\"><strong data-start=\"3058\" data-end=\"3070\">[pb_glossary id=\"1443\"]Adaptors[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are movements that satisfy personal needs or express internal states. Playing with your hair when nervous, tapping your foot while anxious, or hugging yourself when cold are examples of adaptors.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"695\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image35.jpeg\" alt=\"Two men and a woman sitting on a blanket the man closest to the camera has his hand up while the man in the middle has his eyes looking. up to the sky and the woman is smiling and slightly laughing. \" width=\"695\" height=\"521\" \/> Figure 5.4 \u2013 Gestures in a heated debate during a picnic[\/caption]\r\n<h3 data-start=\"197\" data-end=\"210\">Posture<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"212\" data-end=\"460\">Posture is the final element of kinesics. Humans can stand tall or slouch, lean forward or backward, round or slump their shoulders, and tilt their heads in various ways. Mehrabian (1972) argued that posture communicates both immediacy and power.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"462\" data-end=\"816\"><strong data-start=\"462\" data-end=\"475\">[pb_glossary id=\"1151\"]Immediacy[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> refers to the degree to which someone appears interested or attracted to another person. For example, in the United States, when people find someone attractive or engaging, they often approach them directly, keep their heads up, and lean in. Conversely, when disinterested, they might lean back, avert their eyes, or shift their body away.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"818\" data-end=\"1224\"><strong data-start=\"818\" data-end=\"827\">Power<\/strong> refers to the ability to influence or control others or situations. In the United States, people with high status often adopt relaxed postures, such as leaning back in a chair or standing with casual ease (Burgoon, Buller, &amp; Woodall, 1996). In contrast, Japanese communicators may display power through an upright posture with both feet firmly planted on the floor, signaling formality and authority.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1231\" data-end=\"1245\">Vocalics<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1247\" data-end=\"1772\">Vocalics, also called <strong data-start=\"1269\" data-end=\"1285\">paralanguage<\/strong> (\u201cwith language\u201d), include the vocal characteristics that shape the meaning of spoken communication. These involve both verbal and nonverbal elements such as rate, pitch, tone, volume, intensity, pausing, and even silence. For instance, silence or vocal pauses may signal hesitation, mark a moment to collect one\u2019s thoughts, or serve as a sign of respect, depending on cultural context. At times, what is not said can carry just as much meaning\u2014or even more\u2014than the words themselves.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1779\" data-end=\"1794\">Proxemics<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1796\" data-end=\"2182\">The term <em data-start=\"1805\" data-end=\"1816\">[pb_glossary id=\"981\"]proxemics[\/pb_glossary]<\/em>, derived from the Latin word <em data-start=\"1846\" data-end=\"1856\">proximus<\/em> (\u201cnear\u201d), refers to communication through the use of physical space. Proxemics examines how distance is used in social interactions and how space conveys social rank and relationships. For example, who gets the corner office or who sits at the head of the table communicates something about power and hierarchy.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2184\" data-end=\"2489\">Anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1963) developed the theory of proxemics after observing how people in different cultures maintained varying distances from one another. For instance, individuals in France tended to stand closer together than those in England. Hall described two main aspects of proxemics:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol data-start=\"2491\" data-end=\"3287\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2491\" data-end=\"2724\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2494\" data-end=\"2724\"><strong data-start=\"2494\" data-end=\"2507\">[pb_glossary id=\"881\"]Territory[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>: the space we claim as our own and defend. This could include decorating a bedroom with posters or arranging a workspace to reflect personal identity. Territory reflects control, ownership, and individual expression.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2729\" data-end=\"3287\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2732\" data-end=\"3287\"><strong data-start=\"2732\" data-end=\"2757\">[pb_glossary id=\"1336\"]Conversation distance[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>: the \u201cbubble\u201d of personal space that surrounds individuals during interactions. In the United States, intimate space typically ranges from 0 to 18 inches, personal space from 18 inches to 4 feet, social space from 4 to 12 feet, and public space from 12 feet or more. These ranges, however, differ widely across cultures. North Americans tend to prefer more space than people in Latin America or the Middle East, where closer proximity is common and expected. Standing too far away in such contexts may signal coldness or aloofness rather than respect.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"445\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image36.png\" alt=\"Circular graph displaying space. Public space is anywhere from 12-25 ft. Social space is 4-12 ft. Personal space is 1.5 ft, and intimate space is anything less than 1.5 ft. \" width=\"445\" height=\"445\" \/> Figure 5.5 \u2013 Hall\u2019s Conversation Distance[\/caption]\r\n<h3 data-start=\"176\" data-end=\"189\">Haptics<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"191\" data-end=\"411\">Touch in communication is called <strong data-start=\"224\" data-end=\"235\">[pb_glossary id=\"1192\"]haptics[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, derived from the ancient Greek word <em data-start=\"273\" data-end=\"282\">haptien<\/em>, meaning \u201cto touch.\u201d The meaning of touch varies depending on its duration, location on the body, and intensity (Floyd, 1999). Cultural norms strongly influence how people use and interpret touch. For example, researchers observed people sitting at outdoor caf\u00e9s in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and London, England. They found that Puerto Ricans touched each other an average of <strong data-start=\"659\" data-end=\"681\">180 times per hour<\/strong>, while the British average was <strong data-start=\"713\" data-end=\"721\">zero<\/strong> (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2002).<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"772\" data-end=\"1384\">Edward T. Hall (1963) noted that haptics often combines with proxemics to form patterns of <strong data-start=\"863\" data-end=\"874\">contact<\/strong> and <strong data-start=\"879\" data-end=\"893\">noncontact<\/strong> cultures. In <strong data-start=\"907\" data-end=\"927\">[pb_glossary id=\"1344\"]contact cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, people stand closer together when talking, maintain more direct eye contact, touch more frequently, and typically speak louder. South America, the Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe are considered contact cultures, with the Middle East often cited as the region with the highest level of contact. In\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><strong>non-contact cultures<\/strong>, such as those found in Great Britain, the United States, and Japan, people typically stand farther apart, maintain less eye contact, and touch one another <\/span>less frequently.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1391\" data-end=\"1407\">Chronemics<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1409\" data-end=\"1858\"><strong data-start=\"1409\" data-end=\"1423\">[pb_glossary id=\"1400\"]Chronemics[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> refers to how people perceive, structure, and use time in communication. Time can carry symbolic meaning across cultures, influencing perceptions of respect, power, and status. Consider the question: <em data-start=\"1624\" data-end=\"1659\">Whom are you willing to wait for?<\/em> A doctor when you are sick? A potential employer at a job interview? A close friend or family member? Your answer reflects how much value you place on time relative to relationships and roles.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1860\" data-end=\"1960\">One key distinction is between <strong data-start=\"1891\" data-end=\"1906\">monochronic<\/strong> and <strong data-start=\"1911\" data-end=\"1926\">polychronic<\/strong> time orientations (Hall, 1983).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"1962\" data-end=\"2742\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1962\" data-end=\"2267\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1964\" data-end=\"2267\"><strong data-start=\"1964\" data-end=\"1984\">[pb_glossary id=\"1061\"]Monochronic[\/pb_glossary] time<\/strong> views time as linear and segmented, treating it as a resource to be managed and utilized efficiently. Punctuality, efficiency, and sticking to schedules are emphasized, sometimes even more than maintaining personal relationships. For example, German trains are famous for departing and arriving exactly on schedule.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2269\" data-end=\"2742\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2271\" data-end=\"2742\"><strong data-start=\"2271\" data-end=\"2291\">[pb_glossary id=\"1003\"]Polychronic[\/pb_glossary] time<\/strong> views time as flexible and cyclical. Multiple activities can co-occur, and relationships often take precedence over strict adherence to schedules. For example, arriving \u201con time\u201d for a party in Argentina or Mexico may mean arriving well after the stated start time, since social events begin only once people have gathered. In these contexts, trains or events may not operate \u201cby the clock,\u201d but instead adjust around human interaction.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"292\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image37.jpeg\" alt=\"An old alarm clock with two bells a the top with a sticky note in front of the clock reading &quot;Time is Money.&quot; \" width=\"292\" height=\"191\" \/> Figure 5.6 \u2013 Monochronic Time[\/caption]\r\n<h3 data-start=\"230\" data-end=\"261\">Past, Present, and Future<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"263\" data-end=\"447\">Cultures also differ in how they perceive and prioritize time across the past, present, and future. This question was included in Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck\u2019s Value Orientation Theory. Some cultures emphasize the <strong data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"487\">[pb_glossary id=\"1204\"]future[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, often reflecting optimism that tomorrow will bring improvement, innovation, or progress. In these cultures, preserving historical buildings or traditions may be seen as less critical than modernizing and updating. Planning calendars and setting appointments years in advance is a common practice. The United States is often described as a nation with a strong future orientation.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"845\" data-end=\"1197\">Other cultures emphasize the <strong data-start=\"874\" data-end=\"885\">[pb_glossary id=\"986\"]present[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, valuing the here and now. The focus is on living in the moment and recognizing opportunities in the present. Spain, Greece, and many African nations tend toward a present-oriented approach. Some cultures, such as Russian and Mexican, emphasize the present while acknowledging the influence of the past on their current lives. Still other cultures place a strong emphasis on the <strong data-start=\"1251\" data-end=\"1259\">past<\/strong>. Many European and Asian cultures stress that history and tradition shape present reality, and that destiny or karma influences what occurs in one\u2019s life. In these societies, the past guides understanding of the present and shapes the future (Martin &amp; Nakayama, 2007).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1550\" data-end=\"1575\">Physical Appearance<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1577\" data-end=\"1997\">Visible characteristics, including hair, clothing, body type, grooming, jewelry, glasses, backpacks, briefcases, and purses, profoundly influence communication. How we look conveys as much about us as what we say. Across cultures, people frequently attribute positive qualities, such as intelligence, persuasiveness, warmth, and leadership potential, to those they find physically attractive (Hatfield &amp; Sprecher, 1986). This tendency is explained by the <strong data-start=\"2033\" data-end=\"2048\">[pb_glossary id=\"1194\"]halo[\/pb_glossary] effect<\/strong> (making a broad positive judgment based on one favorable trait) and its opposite, the <strong data-start=\"2135\" data-end=\"2151\">[pb_glossary id=\"1164\"]horns[\/pb_glossary] effect<\/strong> (making a broad negative judgment based on one unfavorable trait). Because beauty standards vary across cultures and evolve, attractiveness is best understood as socially constructed and highly context-dependent.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"2383\" data-end=\"2398\">Artifacts<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"2400\" data-end=\"2848\"><strong data-start=\"2400\" data-end=\"2413\">[pb_glossary id=\"1428\"]Artifacts[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are the objects we possess that influence how we see ourselves and how others perceive us. These can include jewelry, tattoos, clothing brands, cars, watches, or even eyeglasses. Artifacts convey aspects of identity, including gender, role or position, class or status, personality, and group membership. In this way, the items we choose to display become extensions of self-expression and tools for communication across cultures.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"561\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image38.jpeg\" alt=\"A man walking away from the camera wearing a hat with a Tinkerbell backpack.\" width=\"561\" height=\"373\" \/> Figure 5.7 \u2013 A tourist wearing a Tinkerbell backpack[\/caption]\r\n<h3 data-start=\"194\" data-end=\"211\">Environment<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"213\" data-end=\"960\">A final way we communicate nonverbally is through our <strong data-start=\"267\" data-end=\"282\">[pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]environment[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. The environment refers to the physical aspects of our surroundings and how those surroundings shape our communication. More than just the tables and chairs in an office, the environment plays a crucial role in dynamic communication. The perception of one\u2019s environment influences one\u2019s reaction to it. For example, Google is known for designing workspaces that encourage creativity, collaboration, and interaction, offering open layouts, recreational areas, and in-house dining facilities. While these environments are expensive to create, the design communicates a clear cultural message: innovation and teamwork are valued, and the physical setting reinforces those values (Gibson et al., 2009).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"967\" data-end=\"996\">Other Codes of Interest<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"998\" data-end=\"1138\">Although not as\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">extensively researched as other nonverbal codes,\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"916\"]scent[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1378\"]color[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are also powerful means of conveying<\/span>\u00a0nonverbal messages.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"1140\" data-end=\"1868\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1140\" data-end=\"1529\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1142\" data-end=\"1529\"><strong data-start=\"1142\" data-end=\"1152\">Scent:<\/strong> In the United States, lemon-scented cleaning products are often associated with cleanliness and health. Mint is widely used in toothpaste and hygiene products to symbolize freshness. In Germany, root beer flavoring is frequently used in medicine to mask the bitterness of certain medications. In contrast, foreigners in China usually avoid <em data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1465\">stinky tofu<\/em> because of its strong, unpleasant odor (Classen et al., 1994).<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1531\" data-end=\"1868\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1533\" data-end=\"1868\"><strong data-start=\"1533\" data-end=\"1543\">Color:<\/strong> The meanings of colors vary widely across cultures. In the United States, yellow is often associated with cowardice, while in China, red symbolizes good fortune. In Western cultures, purple is often associated with royalty, but in Brazil, it is more closely linked with mourning. In North Africa, green has associations with corruption (Aslam, 2006).<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Exercise<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div class=\"chapter-5-\u2013-nonverbal-communication\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p data-start=\"556\" data-end=\"890\">Watch <em data-start=\"590\" data-end=\"713\">How Does Cultural Context Impact Nonverbal Communication? \u2013 The Language Library<\/em>. This video highlights how culture shapes our interpretation of gestures, expressions, and body language, underscoring that nonverbal communication is not universal.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"897\" data-end=\"1076\">While watching, ask yourself, how does this video change the way you think about interpreting everyday behaviors, like smiling, eye contact, or gestures, when you interact across cultures?<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5huAMyn_J8s\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIf the above activity does not work, here is a link to the original video: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5huAMyn_J8s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">How Does Cultural Context Impact Nonverbal Communication? - The Language Library<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1875\" data-end=\"1895\">Cultural Space<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1897\" data-end=\"2327\">While cultural space doesn\u2019t fit neatly into the category of nonverbal codes, intercultural communication researchers find it significant because it connects culture, environment, and identity. French philosopher Michel Foucault (1970) introduced the concept when exploring how social and cultural spaces influence human behavior. <strong data-start=\"2228\" data-end=\"2246\">[pb_glossary id=\"1315\"]Cultural space[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> refers to the social and cultural contexts in which our identities are formed. One of the first cultural spaces we experience is <strong data-start=\"2379\" data-end=\"2387\">[pb_glossary id=\"1171\"]home[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. Home is not merely a physical structure, but a symbolic space that conveys safety, a sense of belonging, social class, and cultural norms. Similarly, <strong data-start=\"2528\" data-end=\"2545\">neighborhoods<\/strong> carry cultural significance, often shaped by factors such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Settlement patterns in the United States and elsewhere reveal how historical and political forces shape where people live, reinforcing power and identity.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2788\" data-end=\"3080\"><strong data-start=\"2788\" data-end=\"2799\">Regions<\/strong> also create powerful cultural identities. [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]Regionalism[\/pb_glossary] reflects loyalty to a particular area and can be expressed through symbolic acts, such as flying flags, wearing regional clothing, celebrating holidays, or participating in protests or conflicts (Martin &amp; Nakayama, 2017). Finally, <strong data-start=\"3091\" data-end=\"3109\">digital spaces<\/strong> add a new dimension to cultural identity. Social media platforms enable individuals and groups to form communities that transcend geographic borders, redefining cultural space as fluid and interactive. Unlike earlier notions of space tied to land ownership, borders, or colonies, today\u2019s cultural spaces increasingly reflect both physical and virtual environments.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"458\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image39.jpeg\" alt=\"A covered bridge\" width=\"458\" height=\"305\" \/> Figure 5.8 \u2013 Cultural Space in Lane County \u2013 A covered bridge[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Case Check: \"Look at me while I'm talking to you\"<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nNonverbal communication often operates outside conscious awareness, which makes it especially influential in intercultural encounters. As you move into chapters on barriers and competence, you will see how unexamined nonverbal expectations can reinforce bias or escalate conflict.\r\n<p data-start=\"2713\" data-end=\"2914\">A supervisor tells an employee they need to maintain eye contact to appear confident. The employee feels uncomfortable and avoids eye contact even more. The supervisor interprets this as disengagement.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2916\" data-end=\"2940\"><strong data-start=\"2916\" data-end=\"2940\">Reflection Questions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"2941\" data-end=\"3107\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2941\" data-end=\"2991\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2943\" data-end=\"2991\">How do nonverbal behaviors vary across cultures?<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2992\" data-end=\"3049\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2994\" data-end=\"3049\">Why can good intentions still lead to misunderstanding?<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3050\" data-end=\"3107\">\r\n<p data-start=\"3052\" data-end=\"3107\">How could this interaction be handled more competently?<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"1020\" data-end=\"1070\"><strong data-start=\"1020\" data-end=\"1070\">Cultural Meaning of Silence and Nonverbal Cues<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1013\" data-end=\"1294\">Silence is not the absence of communication. It is a powerful communicative behavior whose meaning varies widely across cultures and contexts. Silence can convey respect, disagreement, reflection, discomfort, or resistance, depending on cultural norms and situational expectations. In many U.S. communication contexts, especially classrooms and workplaces, silence is often interpreted negatively. It may be seen as a lack of preparation, confidence, or engagement. Students and employees are frequently encouraged to \u201cspeak up,\u201d ask questions, and actively participate, which reflects cultural values of self-expression and individual contribution.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1665\" data-end=\"2110\">In contrast, in cultures such as Japan or Finland, silence may signal respect, careful thought, or attentiveness. Speaking too quickly or too often can be viewed as inappropriate or disruptive. In these contexts, silence allows space for reflection and demonstrates consideration for others. Similarly, in some Indigenous and collectivist cultures, silence can serve as a way to preserve harmony or show respect for elders and community members. Because silence carries different meanings across cultures, misinterpretation is common. A communicator who values silence may be seen as disengaged, while one who values verbal participation may be perceived as dominating or disrespectful. Recognizing silence as a culturally meaningful form of communication helps individuals navigate intercultural interactions more thoughtfully.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"191\" data-end=\"207\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"209\" data-end=\"456\">People may not always understand your words, but they will certainly interpret your nonverbal communication through the lens of <em data-start=\"337\" data-end=\"348\">their own<\/em> cultural norms and values. Those perceptions are shaped by the teachings and experiences of their culture, not yours. The ideas and theories presented in this chapter highlight how we study the structures of culture, values, and communication. They provide us with a framework for discussing and comparing cultures, but it is essential to remember that cultures are heterogeneous and constantly evolving. One size does not fit all, and nonverbal communication is often ambiguous, even in the best of times.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Key Terms<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"868\" data-end=\"893\">Nonverbal communication<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"896\" data-end=\"912\">Mixed messages<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"915\" data-end=\"935\">Facial expressions<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"938\" data-end=\"951\">Eye contact<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"954\" data-end=\"964\">Gestures<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"967\" data-end=\"976\">Emblems<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"979\" data-end=\"993\">Illustrators<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"996\" data-end=\"1008\">Regulators<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1011\" data-end=\"1021\">Adaptors<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1024\" data-end=\"1033\">Posture<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1036\" data-end=\"1047\">Immediacy<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1050\" data-end=\"1057\">Power<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1060\" data-end=\"1070\">Vocalics<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1073\" data-end=\"1084\">Proxemics<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1087\" data-end=\"1098\">Territory<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1101\" data-end=\"1124\">Conversation distance<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1127\" data-end=\"1136\">Haptics<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1139\" data-end=\"1151\">Chronemics<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1154\" data-end=\"1179\">Monochronic\/Polychronic<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1182\" data-end=\"1203\">Past\/Present\/Future<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1206\" data-end=\"1227\">Physical appearance<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1230\" data-end=\"1241\">Artifacts<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1257\">Environment<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1260\" data-end=\"1276\">Cultural space<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1279\" data-end=\"1296\">Nonverbal codes<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1299\" data-end=\"1321\">Intentional messages<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1324\" data-end=\"1348\">Unintentional messages<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1351\" data-end=\"1371\">Contact\/Noncontact<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1374\" data-end=\"1392\">Halo\/Horn Effect<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Reflection Questions\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1430\" data-end=\"1627\">When you observe the nonverbal behavior of others, what do you notice first? Why do you think this is the case? Is there something in your culture that taught you to focus on that behavior first?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1631\" data-end=\"1849\">Shaking hands is a standard form of greeting in many cultures. Have you ever extended your hand and had someone refuse to shake it\u2014or have you refused to shake an extended hand? What did you think in that moment, and how did you feel?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1853\" data-end=\"2059\">Language is a big part of communication, but how do you communicate with someone who doesn\u2019t understand what you are saying? What nonverbal codes do you use, and how do you know if you\u2019ve been successful?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2063\" data-end=\"2315\">Eye contact has different meanings across cultures. How do you react when you are communicating with someone who follows different cultural rules for eye contact? How do you adapt your approach, and how do you know if your ideas have been understood?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2319\" data-end=\"2561\">Bathing and personal hygiene standards vary widely across cultures. Should you say something to someone who smells? Why or why not? How might you approach a situation with a roommate, classmate, or coworker whose hygiene creates discomfort?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p data-start=\"290\" data-end=\"306\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3332\" data-end=\"3464\">Birdwhistell, R. L. (1973). <em data-start=\"336\" data-end=\"395\">Kinesics and context: Essays on body motion communication<\/em>. University of Pennsylvania Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3332\" data-end=\"3464\">Burgoon, J. K., Buller, D. B., &amp; Woodall, W. G. (1996). <em data-start=\"490\" data-end=\"538\">Nonverbal communication: The unspoken dialogue<\/em> (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"566\" data-end=\"735\">Burgoon, J. K., &amp; Hoobler, G. D. (2002). Nonverbal signals. In M. L. Knapp &amp; J. A. Daly (Eds.), <em data-start=\"662\" data-end=\"703\">Handbook of interpersonal communication<\/em> (3rd ed., pp. 240\u2013299). Sage.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"737\" data-end=\"852\">Chen, G. M., &amp; Starosta, W. J. (2005). <em data-start=\"776\" data-end=\"820\">Foundations of intercultural communication<\/em>. University Press of America.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"854\" data-end=\"978\">Ekman, P. (1976). <em data-start=\"872\" data-end=\"905\">Movements with precise meanings<\/em>. Semiotica, 15(4), 335\u2013344. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"934\" data-end=\"976\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/semi.1975.15.4.335<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"980\" data-end=\"1064\">Haller, M., &amp; Peeters, J. (2019). <em data-start=\"1014\" data-end=\"1050\">Body language: The myths and facts<\/em>. Routledge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1066\" data-end=\"1310\">Jones, S. E., &amp; LeBaron, C. D. (2002). Research on the relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication: Emerging integrations. In M. L. Knapp &amp; J. A. Daly (Eds.), <em data-start=\"1237\" data-end=\"1278\">Handbook of interpersonal communication<\/em> (3rd ed., pp. 499\u2013521). Sage.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1312\" data-end=\"1418\">Knapp, M. L., &amp; Hall, J. A. (2002). <em data-start=\"1348\" data-end=\"1394\">Nonverbal communication in human interaction<\/em> (5th ed.). Wadsworth.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1420\" data-end=\"1500\">McLean, S. (2003). <em data-start=\"1439\" data-end=\"1482\">The basics of interpersonal communication<\/em>. Allyn &amp; Bacon.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Solomon, R. C. (2017). <em data-start=\"1525\" data-end=\"1553\">The philosophy of emotions<\/em>. Springer.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Burgoon, J. K., Buller, D. B., &amp; Woodall, W. G. (1996). <em data-start=\"3390\" data-end=\"3438\">Nonverbal communication: The unspoken dialogue<\/em> (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Hall, E. T. (1963). <em data-start=\"3487\" data-end=\"3535\">A system for the notation of proxemic behavior<\/em>. <em data-start=\"3537\" data-end=\"3566\">American Anthropologist, 65<\/em>(5), 1003\u20131026. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"3582\" data-end=\"3627\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/aa.1963.65.5.02a00020<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Mehrabian, A. (1972). <em data-start=\"3654\" data-end=\"3679\">Nonverbal communication<\/em>. Aldine-Atherton.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). <em data-start=\"2830\" data-end=\"2861\">Environmental literacy report<\/em>. U.S. Government Printing Office.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Floyd, K. (1999). <em data-start=\"2918\" data-end=\"2974\">Communicating affection: Nonverbal expressions of love<\/em>. State University of New York Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Hall, E. T. (1963). <em data-start=\"3036\" data-end=\"3084\">A system for the notation of proxemic behavior<\/em>. <em data-start=\"3086\" data-end=\"3115\">American Anthropologist, 65<\/em>(5), 1003\u20131026. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"3131\" data-end=\"3176\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/aa.1963.65.5.02a00020<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Hall, E. T. (1983). <em data-start=\"3201\" data-end=\"3249\">The dance of life: The other dimension of time<\/em>. Anchor Books.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Kluckhohn, F. R., &amp; Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). <em data-start=\"3054\" data-end=\"3088\">Variations in value orientations<\/em>. Row, Peterson and Company.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Martin, J. N., &amp; Nakayama, T. K. (2007). <em data-start=\"3162\" data-end=\"3203\">Intercultural communication in contexts<\/em> (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Aslam, M. M. (2006). Are you selling the right colour? A cross\u2010cultural review of colour as a marketing cue. <em data-start=\"3606\" data-end=\"3647\">Journal of Marketing Communications, 12<\/em>(1), 15\u201330. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"3659\" data-end=\"3700\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13527260500247827<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Classen, C., Howes, D., &amp; Synnott, A. (1994). <em data-start=\"3751\" data-end=\"3789\">Aroma: The cultural history of smell<\/em>. Routledge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Foucault, M. (1970). <em data-start=\"3827\" data-end=\"3886\">The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences<\/em>. Pantheon Books.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Gibson, D. E., Hardy, J. H., &amp; Buckley, M. R. (2009). Understanding the role of organizational culture in creativity and innovation. <em data-start=\"4041\" data-end=\"4070\">Organizational Dynamics, 38<\/em>(3), 214\u2013225. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"4084\" data-end=\"4128\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.orgdyn.2009.04.006<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Martin, J. N., &amp; Nakayama, T. K. (2017). <em data-start=\"4174\" data-end=\"4215\">Intercultural communication in contexts<\/em> (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<div class=\"chapter-5-\u2013-nonverbal-communication\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p data-start=\"217\" data-end=\"279\">When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"283\" data-end=\"369\">Define nonverbal communication and explain how it differs from verbal communication.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"372\" data-end=\"486\">Identify key principles of nonverbal communication and describe how they contribute to intercultural competence.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"489\" data-end=\"543\">Recognize common misconceptions about communication.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"546\" data-end=\"605\">Understand and interpret nonverbal codes across cultures.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"608\" data-end=\"759\">Apply theories related to conversational distance, contact and noncontact cultures, monochronic and polychronic time, and the halo and horns effects.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"762\" data-end=\"868\">Examine the role of cultural spaces and reflect on their importance within your own artistic experience.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-start=\"155\" data-end=\"490\">Introduction<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"155\" data-end=\"490\">Nonverbal communication is a vital part of intercultural interaction. In many situations, we\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">derive more meaning from\u00a0<em>the way<\/em> something is said than from the\u00a0<\/span>words themselves. As we learned in the chapter on verbal communication, some cultures place more emphasis on context, what is not said, than on explicit verbal messages. Nonverbal communication includes all aspects of interaction that fall outside of spoken or written words.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"155\" data-end=\"490\">This can involve gestures, facial expressions, posture, distance, eye contact, touch, vocal characteristics, and other nonverbal cues. In short, nonverbal communication\u00a0<em data-start=\"754\" data-end=\"784\"><span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">encompasses\u00a0<em>everything beyond the spoken word<\/em><\/span>. <\/em>Nonverbal messages are pervasive; they surround us constantly. A laugh, a smile, a clap, a pointed finger, a whistle, or a snap, all of these convey meaning, whether we intend them to or not. Nonverbal messages can be deliberate or unintentional, but they always contribute to how others understand us.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1093\" data-end=\"1327\">While verbal and nonverbal communication share similarities, they are both symbolic and convey meaning; they also differ in significant ways. Understanding these differences is key to becoming competent in intercultural communication.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"153\" data-end=\"195\">Principles of Nonverbal Communication<\/h2>\n<h3 data-start=\"290\" data-end=\"342\">Nonverbal Communication Uses Multiple Channels<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"343\" data-end=\"499\">Verbal communication relies on words, transmitted through a single channel at a time. We may speak, read, write, or listen, but each of these acts uses a separate channel. Nonverbal communication, however, works through many channels simultaneously. When talking with a friend, you may hear their tone of voice, observe their facial expressions, notice their gestures, register eye contact, and perhaps exchange touch, all while interpreting their words. Similarly, if you want to signal interest to a romantic partner, you might dress up, wear perfume or cologne, style your hair, maintain eye contact, and laugh at their jokes. All of these cues together convey your message.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1009\" data-end=\"1056\">Nonverbal Communication Is More Ambiguous<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1057\" data-end=\"1348\">Unlike most verbal messages, the meaning of nonverbal communication is often learned unconsciously and is open to multiple interpretations. A smile may signal friendliness, comfort, nervousness, or sarcasm. Eye contact may suggest intimacy, humor, or challenge, depending on the situation. This ambiguity makes nonverbal messages particularly difficult to interpret across cultural boundaries. Unlike words, which often have agreed-upon dictionary definitions, there is no universal \u201ctranslation guide\u201d for nonverbal behaviors. Some cues are culturally learned, such as the handshake in the United States, often paired with a verbal greeting like, \u201cHi, I\u2019m Karen,\u201d in business settings.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1750\" data-end=\"1795\">Nonverbal Communication Has Fewer Rules<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1796\" data-end=\"2231\">Part of the ambiguity of nonverbal communication stems from the fact that fewer formal rules govern it than those that govern verbal communication. Spoken and written language have strict rules for grammar, spelling, usage, and pronunciation. By contrast, nonverbal behaviors are often governed by informal norms. Parents may say, \u201cIt\u2019s not polite to stare,\u201d but such statements are more about etiquette than fixed rules for interpreting meaning.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"2233\" data-end=\"2276\">Nonverbal Communication Is Continuous<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"2277\" data-end=\"2745\">Unlike verbal communication, which starts and stops, nonverbal communication is ongoing. In face-to-face interaction, you communicate nonverbally before you say a word\u2014through posture, appearance, or facial expression\u2014and you continue to do so after the conversation ends. Even in digital spaces, your usernames, profile pictures, emojis, and stylistic choices convey nonverbal messages. In short, while you can stop talking, you cannot stop communicating nonverbally.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 425px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image32.jpeg\" alt=\"A young child with brown hair a pink jacket and pink shoes stands on a step to look at fish being displayed in takes at an open market.\" width=\"425\" height=\"319\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.1 \u2013 A young child touches a fish through the glass at the market<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"129\" data-end=\"201\">Nonverbal Messages Communicate Emotions, Meaning, and Relationships<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"203\" data-end=\"499\">When we interact, we rely on much more than words to make sense of meaning. Nonverbal communication encompasses the entire body, the space we occupy, the time we allocate, and even how we manage silence. A wink, a nod, or a pause can all carry significant meaning, often shaping the interpretation behind our messages. Nonverbal cues often reveal our emotions before we consciously register them. A sigh, raised eyebrow, or shift in posture can reveal feelings we didn&#8217;t intend to show. Because these behaviors occur quickly and often unconsciously, unintentional nonverbal signals may contradict what we <em data-start=\"803\" data-end=\"808\">say<\/em> we are feeling or thinking. This becomes especially important when people send <em data-start=\"891\" data-end=\"907\">mixed messages, <\/em>when verbal and nonverbal signals do not align (Burgoon &amp; Hoobler, 2002). In such situations, we almost always trust nonverbal behavior because it seems more authentic or less controlled. Still, it is easy to misinterpret these cues, especially across cultures, where meanings vary.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1197\" data-end=\"1394\">Nonverbal behavior also communicates power and status. Touch, posture, gestures, and the way space is claimed or shared all signal how relationships are structured and whose influence is greater.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"1396\" data-end=\"1450\">Nonverbal and Verbal Communication Work Together<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1744\">Verbal and nonverbal communication are not separate systems; they work together to create meaning (Jones &amp; LeBaron, 2002). As Birdwhistell (1973) noted, we never experience them in isolation. A person\u2019s tone of voice, facial expression, and gestures all frame how their words are understood. Nonverbal communication can reinforce what is spoken, substitute for words when they are unnecessary, or even contradict what is said. However, it cannot\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><em>entirely replace<\/em> words<\/span>. We need the verbal message as the anchor, while nonverbal cues add depth, emotion, and relational context.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1746\" data-end=\"2025\"><strong>How Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Work Together<\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 175px; width: 761px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 105.432px;\">Relationship<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Description<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Example<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 105.432px;\"><strong>Reinforce<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Nonverbal cues strengthen or emphasize what is said.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Saying <em>\u201cYes\u201d<\/em> while nodding.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 105.432px;\"><strong>Substitute<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Nonverbal cues replace words when speech is unnecessary or impossible.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Shrugging shoulders instead of saying <em>\u201cI don\u2019t know.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 105.432px;\"><strong>Contradict<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 365.849px;\">Nonverbal cues conflict with verbal messages, creating mixed signals.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 268.789px;\">Smiling while saying, <em>\u201cI\u2019m so angry.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 546px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image33.jpeg\" alt=\"A customer communicating non verbally by holding up two fingers to an employee at a food truck while reaching for his wallet. The employee is also holding up two fingers, indicating she understands the customer.\" width=\"546\" height=\"383\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.2 \u2013 A customer and worker communicating with gestures<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"118\" data-end=\"171\">Nonverbal Communication is Influenced by Culture<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"173\" data-end=\"575\">The strong connection between culture and nonverbal communication makes intercultural interaction especially complex. While some nonverbal cues can be learned, their meanings are often ambiguous and are guided by fewer formal rules than those of language. As a result, it typically takes years of immersion in a culture to fully comprehend the nuanced meanings of its nonverbal practices (Chen &amp; Starosta, 2005). For example, during a 2009 meeting with the Emperor of Japan, then-U.S. President Barack Obama bowed deeply as a gesture of respect. In the United States, some conservative commentators criticized the bow, with former Vice President Dick Cheney calling it inappropriate. In Japan, however, the gesture was understood as respectful, though many observers noted that the 45-degree bend, or <em data-start=\"965\" data-end=\"976\">seikeirei<\/em> bow, was more formal than necessary.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1017\" data-end=\"1217\">This example illustrates how the same nonverbal behavior can be interpreted differently across cultures, underscoring the importance of cultural context when interpreting nonverbal messages.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"196\" data-end=\"245\">Misconceptions About Nonverbal Communication<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"247\" data-end=\"472\">Several common misconceptions about nonverbal communication persist and can hinder the development of competent intercultural communicators. These beliefs are so ingrained that you may find it difficult to let them go.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"519\">People Can Read Nonverbal Communication<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"520\" data-end=\"944\">Popular culture is full of references to \u201cbody language\u201d and promises that you can learn to read your boss, friend, or partner \u201clike a book.\u201d The problem is that nonverbal communication is ambiguous, guided by fewer rules than language, and always co-created with verbal communication. As a result, there is no universal shorthand or \u201clanguage of the body\u201d that can be applied consistently across contexts (Haller &amp; Peeters, 2019). Yes, people assign meaning to nonverbal behaviors, just as they do with words. But unlike verbal language, nonverbal communication cannot be read with certainty. So-called experts who claim to read people flawlessly are rarely any better at assigning meaning than anyone else.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1226\" data-end=\"1300\">Deception Can Be Accurately Detected Through Nonverbal Communication<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1301\" data-end=\"1578\">Another widespread belief is that we can spot deception through nonverbal cues. If that were true, poker players would never win a bluff, politicians would always tell the truth, teenagers could not sneak past their parents, and romantic partners would never fudge the truth. Decades of research show that no single nonverbal cue, whether it\u2019s eye movement, facial expression, or vocal tone, consistently reveals deception. At best, people are about as accurate at guessing lies as they are at flipping a coin.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"1821\" data-end=\"1864\">Types of Nonverbal Communication Codes<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1866\" data-end=\"2264\">Nonverbal communication is powerful because humans utilize various aspects of behavior, appearance, and environment to convey meaning. Scholars refer to these channels as <em data-start=\"2033\" data-end=\"2064\">nonverbal communication codes<\/em> (Burgoon &amp; Hoobler, 2002). While cultural patterns are embedded in these codes, they should be understood as guidelines rather than stereotypes, since there is significant variation even within cultures.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"2266\" data-end=\"2280\">Kinesics<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"2281\" data-end=\"2555\"><em data-start=\"2281\" data-end=\"2291\">Kinesics<\/em> comes from the Greek word <em data-start=\"2318\" data-end=\"2327\">kinesis<\/em>, meaning \u201cmovement.\u201d This category includes facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and posture. Kinesics is often considered the most influential nonverbal code because movement communicates such a wide range of meanings.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 544px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image34.jpeg\" alt=\"A child looking at the camera with their mouth wide open like they are going to growl at the camera, or start laughing, or crying.\" width=\"544\" height=\"363\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.3 \u2013 A very expressive child<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 data-start=\"222\" data-end=\"246\">Facial Expressions<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"247\" data-end=\"611\">Facial expressions convey a wide range of emotions, and we often gauge others&#8217; feelings by observing them. The popularity of emojis in electronic communication underscores the central role that facial expressions play in conveying meaning. Some scholars even argue that facial expressions rank first among all forms of communication (Knapp &amp; Hall, 2002).<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"613\" data-end=\"1287\">However, cultural rules strongly influence how facial expressions are displayed and interpreted. For example, while most humans can smile, the meaning of a smile is not universal. In Russia, smiling may be perceived as foolishness or manipulation, so people often pose for family photos with flat or stern expressions. Many Hispanic cultures value a proud and elegant demeanor, which may lead to a more reserved approach, including not smiling. In Japan, smiling can signal respect\u2014or serve to mask one\u2019s true feelings. In contrast, in the United States, smiling is often expected to show happiness, gratitude, or friendliness, and we even smile when nervous to smooth over interactions (Solomon, 2017).<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1289\" data-end=\"1306\">Eye Contact<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1307\" data-end=\"2052\">Eye contact plays multiple roles in communication. It can express emotions, regulate the flow of conversation, signal attentiveness, display respect or status, and sometimes even communicate hostility or aggression (Burgoon, Buller, &amp; Woodall, 1996). Yet cultural patterns of eye contact vary widely. In the United States, eye contact often conveys confidence, interest, or honesty, but in crowded public spaces, such as buses or city sidewalks, people may deliberately avoid it. In France, by contrast, maintaining eye contact in public can convey curiosity or attraction. In the Middle East, direct eye contact is often considered inappropriate, while in many Asian contexts, avoiding eye contact is a sign of politeness and respect.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"2054\" data-end=\"2068\">Gestures<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"2069\" data-end=\"2268\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1200\">Gestures<\/a> and movements of the hands and arms are another powerful form of nonverbal communication. Scholars typically identify four main categories: <strong data-start=\"2214\" data-end=\"2265\">emblems, illustrators, regulators, and adaptors<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"2270\" data-end=\"3268\">\n<li data-start=\"2270\" data-end=\"2675\">\n<p data-start=\"2272\" data-end=\"2675\"><strong data-start=\"2272\" data-end=\"2283\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1259\">Emblems<\/a><\/strong> are gestures that carry a specific verbal meaning and can replace or reinforce words (Ekman, 1976). For instance, a driver in the United States who has been cut off in traffic might make a rude hand gesture that communicates frustration without saying a word. However, because emblems are culture-specific, the intended meaning may be lost or misunderstood by someone from another culture.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2676\" data-end=\"2867\">\n<p data-start=\"2678\" data-end=\"2867\"><strong data-start=\"2678\" data-end=\"2694\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1153\">Illustrators<\/a><\/strong> accompany speech to clarify or emphasize a message. For example, a grandfather telling a fishing story may spread his hands far apart to show just how large the fish was.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2868\" data-end=\"3055\">\n<p data-start=\"2870\" data-end=\"3055\"><strong data-start=\"2870\" data-end=\"2884\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_964\">Regulators<\/a><\/strong> help control the flow of interaction (McLean, 2003). Holding up a hand to signal \u201cstop\u201d or nodding to encourage someone to continue speaking are both standard regulators.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3056\" data-end=\"3268\">\n<p data-start=\"3058\" data-end=\"3268\"><strong data-start=\"3058\" data-end=\"3070\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1443\">Adaptors<\/a><\/strong> are movements that satisfy personal needs or express internal states. Playing with your hair when nervous, tapping your foot while anxious, or hugging yourself when cold are examples of adaptors.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure style=\"width: 695px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image35.jpeg\" alt=\"Two men and a woman sitting on a blanket the man closest to the camera has his hand up while the man in the middle has his eyes looking. up to the sky and the woman is smiling and slightly laughing.\" width=\"695\" height=\"521\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.4 \u2013 Gestures in a heated debate during a picnic<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 data-start=\"197\" data-end=\"210\">Posture<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"212\" data-end=\"460\">Posture is the final element of kinesics. Humans can stand tall or slouch, lean forward or backward, round or slump their shoulders, and tilt their heads in various ways. Mehrabian (1972) argued that posture communicates both immediacy and power.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"462\" data-end=\"816\"><strong data-start=\"462\" data-end=\"475\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1151\">Immediacy<\/a><\/strong> refers to the degree to which someone appears interested or attracted to another person. For example, in the United States, when people find someone attractive or engaging, they often approach them directly, keep their heads up, and lean in. Conversely, when disinterested, they might lean back, avert their eyes, or shift their body away.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"818\" data-end=\"1224\"><strong data-start=\"818\" data-end=\"827\">Power<\/strong> refers to the ability to influence or control others or situations. In the United States, people with high status often adopt relaxed postures, such as leaning back in a chair or standing with casual ease (Burgoon, Buller, &amp; Woodall, 1996). In contrast, Japanese communicators may display power through an upright posture with both feet firmly planted on the floor, signaling formality and authority.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1231\" data-end=\"1245\">Vocalics<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1247\" data-end=\"1772\">Vocalics, also called <strong data-start=\"1269\" data-end=\"1285\">paralanguage<\/strong> (\u201cwith language\u201d), include the vocal characteristics that shape the meaning of spoken communication. These involve both verbal and nonverbal elements such as rate, pitch, tone, volume, intensity, pausing, and even silence. For instance, silence or vocal pauses may signal hesitation, mark a moment to collect one\u2019s thoughts, or serve as a sign of respect, depending on cultural context. At times, what is not said can carry just as much meaning\u2014or even more\u2014than the words themselves.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1779\" data-end=\"1794\">Proxemics<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1796\" data-end=\"2182\">The term <em data-start=\"1805\" data-end=\"1816\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_981\">proxemics<\/a><\/em>, derived from the Latin word <em data-start=\"1846\" data-end=\"1856\">proximus<\/em> (\u201cnear\u201d), refers to communication through the use of physical space. Proxemics examines how distance is used in social interactions and how space conveys social rank and relationships. For example, who gets the corner office or who sits at the head of the table communicates something about power and hierarchy.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2184\" data-end=\"2489\">Anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1963) developed the theory of proxemics after observing how people in different cultures maintained varying distances from one another. For instance, individuals in France tended to stand closer together than those in England. Hall described two main aspects of proxemics:<\/p>\n<ol data-start=\"2491\" data-end=\"3287\">\n<li data-start=\"2491\" data-end=\"2724\">\n<p data-start=\"2494\" data-end=\"2724\"><strong data-start=\"2494\" data-end=\"2507\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_881\">Territory<\/a><\/strong>: the space we claim as our own and defend. This could include decorating a bedroom with posters or arranging a workspace to reflect personal identity. Territory reflects control, ownership, and individual expression.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2729\" data-end=\"3287\">\n<p data-start=\"2732\" data-end=\"3287\"><strong data-start=\"2732\" data-end=\"2757\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1336\">Conversation distance<\/a><\/strong>: the \u201cbubble\u201d of personal space that surrounds individuals during interactions. In the United States, intimate space typically ranges from 0 to 18 inches, personal space from 18 inches to 4 feet, social space from 4 to 12 feet, and public space from 12 feet or more. These ranges, however, differ widely across cultures. North Americans tend to prefer more space than people in Latin America or the Middle East, where closer proximity is common and expected. Standing too far away in such contexts may signal coldness or aloofness rather than respect.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<figure style=\"width: 445px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image36.png\" alt=\"Circular graph displaying space. Public space is anywhere from 12-25 ft. Social space is 4-12 ft. Personal space is 1.5 ft, and intimate space is anything less than 1.5 ft.\" width=\"445\" height=\"445\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.5 \u2013 Hall\u2019s Conversation Distance<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 data-start=\"176\" data-end=\"189\">Haptics<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"191\" data-end=\"411\">Touch in communication is called <strong data-start=\"224\" data-end=\"235\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1192\">haptics<\/a><\/strong>, derived from the ancient Greek word <em data-start=\"273\" data-end=\"282\">haptien<\/em>, meaning \u201cto touch.\u201d The meaning of touch varies depending on its duration, location on the body, and intensity (Floyd, 1999). Cultural norms strongly influence how people use and interpret touch. For example, researchers observed people sitting at outdoor caf\u00e9s in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and London, England. They found that Puerto Ricans touched each other an average of <strong data-start=\"659\" data-end=\"681\">180 times per hour<\/strong>, while the British average was <strong data-start=\"713\" data-end=\"721\">zero<\/strong> (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2002).<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"772\" data-end=\"1384\">Edward T. Hall (1963) noted that haptics often combines with proxemics to form patterns of <strong data-start=\"863\" data-end=\"874\">contact<\/strong> and <strong data-start=\"879\" data-end=\"893\">noncontact<\/strong> cultures. In <strong data-start=\"907\" data-end=\"927\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1344\">contact cultures<\/a><\/strong>, people stand closer together when talking, maintain more direct eye contact, touch more frequently, and typically speak louder. South America, the Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe are considered contact cultures, with the Middle East often cited as the region with the highest level of contact. In\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><strong>non-contact cultures<\/strong>, such as those found in Great Britain, the United States, and Japan, people typically stand farther apart, maintain less eye contact, and touch one another <\/span>less frequently.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1391\" data-end=\"1407\">Chronemics<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1409\" data-end=\"1858\"><strong data-start=\"1409\" data-end=\"1423\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1400\">Chronemics<\/a><\/strong> refers to how people perceive, structure, and use time in communication. Time can carry symbolic meaning across cultures, influencing perceptions of respect, power, and status. Consider the question: <em data-start=\"1624\" data-end=\"1659\">Whom are you willing to wait for?<\/em> A doctor when you are sick? A potential employer at a job interview? A close friend or family member? Your answer reflects how much value you place on time relative to relationships and roles.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1860\" data-end=\"1960\">One key distinction is between <strong data-start=\"1891\" data-end=\"1906\">monochronic<\/strong> and <strong data-start=\"1911\" data-end=\"1926\">polychronic<\/strong> time orientations (Hall, 1983).<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"1962\" data-end=\"2742\">\n<li data-start=\"1962\" data-end=\"2267\">\n<p data-start=\"1964\" data-end=\"2267\"><strong data-start=\"1964\" data-end=\"1984\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1061\">Monochronic<\/a> time<\/strong> views time as linear and segmented, treating it as a resource to be managed and utilized efficiently. Punctuality, efficiency, and sticking to schedules are emphasized, sometimes even more than maintaining personal relationships. For example, German trains are famous for departing and arriving exactly on schedule.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2269\" data-end=\"2742\">\n<p data-start=\"2271\" data-end=\"2742\"><strong data-start=\"2271\" data-end=\"2291\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1003\">Polychronic<\/a> time<\/strong> views time as flexible and cyclical. Multiple activities can co-occur, and relationships often take precedence over strict adherence to schedules. For example, arriving \u201con time\u201d for a party in Argentina or Mexico may mean arriving well after the stated start time, since social events begin only once people have gathered. In these contexts, trains or events may not operate \u201cby the clock,\u201d but instead adjust around human interaction.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure style=\"width: 292px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image37.jpeg\" alt=\"An old alarm clock with two bells a the top with a sticky note in front of the clock reading &quot;Time is Money.&quot;\" width=\"292\" height=\"191\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.6 \u2013 Monochronic Time<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 data-start=\"230\" data-end=\"261\">Past, Present, and Future<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"263\" data-end=\"447\">Cultures also differ in how they perceive and prioritize time across the past, present, and future. This question was included in Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck\u2019s Value Orientation Theory. Some cultures emphasize the <strong data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"487\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1204\">future<\/a><\/strong>, often reflecting optimism that tomorrow will bring improvement, innovation, or progress. In these cultures, preserving historical buildings or traditions may be seen as less critical than modernizing and updating. Planning calendars and setting appointments years in advance is a common practice. The United States is often described as a nation with a strong future orientation.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"845\" data-end=\"1197\">Other cultures emphasize the <strong data-start=\"874\" data-end=\"885\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_986\">present<\/a><\/strong>, valuing the here and now. The focus is on living in the moment and recognizing opportunities in the present. Spain, Greece, and many African nations tend toward a present-oriented approach. Some cultures, such as Russian and Mexican, emphasize the present while acknowledging the influence of the past on their current lives. Still other cultures place a strong emphasis on the <strong data-start=\"1251\" data-end=\"1259\">past<\/strong>. Many European and Asian cultures stress that history and tradition shape present reality, and that destiny or karma influences what occurs in one\u2019s life. In these societies, the past guides understanding of the present and shapes the future (Martin &amp; Nakayama, 2007).<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1550\" data-end=\"1575\">Physical Appearance<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1577\" data-end=\"1997\">Visible characteristics, including hair, clothing, body type, grooming, jewelry, glasses, backpacks, briefcases, and purses, profoundly influence communication. How we look conveys as much about us as what we say. Across cultures, people frequently attribute positive qualities, such as intelligence, persuasiveness, warmth, and leadership potential, to those they find physically attractive (Hatfield &amp; Sprecher, 1986). This tendency is explained by the <strong data-start=\"2033\" data-end=\"2048\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1194\">halo<\/a> effect<\/strong> (making a broad positive judgment based on one favorable trait) and its opposite, the <strong data-start=\"2135\" data-end=\"2151\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1164\">horns<\/a> effect<\/strong> (making a broad negative judgment based on one unfavorable trait). Because beauty standards vary across cultures and evolve, attractiveness is best understood as socially constructed and highly context-dependent.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"2383\" data-end=\"2398\">Artifacts<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"2400\" data-end=\"2848\"><strong data-start=\"2400\" data-end=\"2413\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1428\">Artifacts<\/a><\/strong> are the objects we possess that influence how we see ourselves and how others perceive us. These can include jewelry, tattoos, clothing brands, cars, watches, or even eyeglasses. Artifacts convey aspects of identity, including gender, role or position, class or status, personality, and group membership. In this way, the items we choose to display become extensions of self-expression and tools for communication across cultures.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 561px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image38.jpeg\" alt=\"A man walking away from the camera wearing a hat with a Tinkerbell backpack.\" width=\"561\" height=\"373\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.7 \u2013 A tourist wearing a Tinkerbell backpack<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 data-start=\"194\" data-end=\"211\">Environment<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"213\" data-end=\"960\">A final way we communicate nonverbally is through our <strong data-start=\"267\" data-end=\"282\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1244\">environment<\/a><\/strong>. The environment refers to the physical aspects of our surroundings and how those surroundings shape our communication. More than just the tables and chairs in an office, the environment plays a crucial role in dynamic communication. The perception of one\u2019s environment influences one\u2019s reaction to it. For example, Google is known for designing workspaces that encourage creativity, collaboration, and interaction, offering open layouts, recreational areas, and in-house dining facilities. While these environments are expensive to create, the design communicates a clear cultural message: innovation and teamwork are valued, and the physical setting reinforces those values (Gibson et al., 2009).<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"967\" data-end=\"996\">Other Codes of Interest<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"998\" data-end=\"1138\">Although not as\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">extensively researched as other nonverbal codes,\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_916\">scent<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1378\">color<\/a><\/strong> are also powerful means of conveying<\/span>\u00a0nonverbal messages.<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"1140\" data-end=\"1868\">\n<li data-start=\"1140\" data-end=\"1529\">\n<p data-start=\"1142\" data-end=\"1529\"><strong data-start=\"1142\" data-end=\"1152\">Scent:<\/strong> In the United States, lemon-scented cleaning products are often associated with cleanliness and health. Mint is widely used in toothpaste and hygiene products to symbolize freshness. In Germany, root beer flavoring is frequently used in medicine to mask the bitterness of certain medications. In contrast, foreigners in China usually avoid <em data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1465\">stinky tofu<\/em> because of its strong, unpleasant odor (Classen et al., 1994).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1531\" data-end=\"1868\">\n<p data-start=\"1533\" data-end=\"1868\"><strong data-start=\"1533\" data-end=\"1543\">Color:<\/strong> The meanings of colors vary widely across cultures. In the United States, yellow is often associated with cowardice, while in China, red symbolizes good fortune. In Western cultures, purple is often associated with royalty, but in Brazil, it is more closely linked with mourning. In North Africa, green has associations with corruption (Aslam, 2006).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Exercise<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div class=\"chapter-5-\u2013-nonverbal-communication\">\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p data-start=\"556\" data-end=\"890\">Watch <em data-start=\"590\" data-end=\"713\">How Does Cultural Context Impact Nonverbal Communication? \u2013 The Language Library<\/em>. This video highlights how culture shapes our interpretation of gestures, expressions, and body language, underscoring that nonverbal communication is not universal.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"897\" data-end=\"1076\">While watching, ask yourself, how does this video change the way you think about interpreting everyday behaviors, like smiling, eye contact, or gestures, when you interact across cultures?<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"How Does Cultural Context Impact Nonverbal Communication? - The Language Library\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5huAMyn_J8s?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>If the above activity does not work, here is a link to the original video: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5huAMyn_J8s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">How Does Cultural Context Impact Nonverbal Communication? &#8211; The Language Library<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3 data-start=\"1875\" data-end=\"1895\">Cultural Space<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1897\" data-end=\"2327\">While cultural space doesn\u2019t fit neatly into the category of nonverbal codes, intercultural communication researchers find it significant because it connects culture, environment, and identity. French philosopher Michel Foucault (1970) introduced the concept when exploring how social and cultural spaces influence human behavior. <strong data-start=\"2228\" data-end=\"2246\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1315\">Cultural space<\/a><\/strong> refers to the social and cultural contexts in which our identities are formed. One of the first cultural spaces we experience is <strong data-start=\"2379\" data-end=\"2387\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_1171\">home<\/a><\/strong>. Home is not merely a physical structure, but a symbolic space that conveys safety, a sense of belonging, social class, and cultural norms. Similarly, <strong data-start=\"2528\" data-end=\"2545\">neighborhoods<\/strong> carry cultural significance, often shaped by factors such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Settlement patterns in the United States and elsewhere reveal how historical and political forces shape where people live, reinforcing power and identity.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2788\" data-end=\"3080\"><strong data-start=\"2788\" data-end=\"2799\">Regions<\/strong> also create powerful cultural identities. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_71_969\">Regionalism<\/a> reflects loyalty to a particular area and can be expressed through symbolic acts, such as flying flags, wearing regional clothing, celebrating holidays, or participating in protests or conflicts (Martin &amp; Nakayama, 2017). Finally, <strong data-start=\"3091\" data-end=\"3109\">digital spaces<\/strong> add a new dimension to cultural identity. Social media platforms enable individuals and groups to form communities that transcend geographic borders, redefining cultural space as fluid and interactive. Unlike earlier notions of space tied to land ownership, borders, or colonies, today\u2019s cultural spaces increasingly reflect both physical and virtual environments.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 458px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image39.jpeg\" alt=\"A covered bridge\" width=\"458\" height=\"305\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.8 \u2013 Cultural Space in Lane County \u2013 A covered bridge<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Case Check: &#8220;Look at me while I&#8217;m talking to you&#8221;<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Nonverbal communication often operates outside conscious awareness, which makes it especially influential in intercultural encounters. As you move into chapters on barriers and competence, you will see how unexamined nonverbal expectations can reinforce bias or escalate conflict.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2713\" data-end=\"2914\">A supervisor tells an employee they need to maintain eye contact to appear confident. The employee feels uncomfortable and avoids eye contact even more. The supervisor interprets this as disengagement.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2916\" data-end=\"2940\"><strong data-start=\"2916\" data-end=\"2940\">Reflection Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"2941\" data-end=\"3107\">\n<li data-start=\"2941\" data-end=\"2991\">\n<p data-start=\"2943\" data-end=\"2991\">How do nonverbal behaviors vary across cultures?<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2992\" data-end=\"3049\">\n<p data-start=\"2994\" data-end=\"3049\">Why can good intentions still lead to misunderstanding?<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3050\" data-end=\"3107\">\n<p data-start=\"3052\" data-end=\"3107\">How could this interaction be handled more competently?<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-start=\"1020\" data-end=\"1070\"><strong data-start=\"1020\" data-end=\"1070\">Cultural Meaning of Silence and Nonverbal Cues<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1013\" data-end=\"1294\">Silence is not the absence of communication. It is a powerful communicative behavior whose meaning varies widely across cultures and contexts. Silence can convey respect, disagreement, reflection, discomfort, or resistance, depending on cultural norms and situational expectations. In many U.S. communication contexts, especially classrooms and workplaces, silence is often interpreted negatively. It may be seen as a lack of preparation, confidence, or engagement. Students and employees are frequently encouraged to \u201cspeak up,\u201d ask questions, and actively participate, which reflects cultural values of self-expression and individual contribution.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1665\" data-end=\"2110\">In contrast, in cultures such as Japan or Finland, silence may signal respect, careful thought, or attentiveness. Speaking too quickly or too often can be viewed as inappropriate or disruptive. In these contexts, silence allows space for reflection and demonstrates consideration for others. Similarly, in some Indigenous and collectivist cultures, silence can serve as a way to preserve harmony or show respect for elders and community members. Because silence carries different meanings across cultures, misinterpretation is common. A communicator who values silence may be seen as disengaged, while one who values verbal participation may be perceived as dominating or disrespectful. Recognizing silence as a culturally meaningful form of communication helps individuals navigate intercultural interactions more thoughtfully.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"191\" data-end=\"207\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"209\" data-end=\"456\">People may not always understand your words, but they will certainly interpret your nonverbal communication through the lens of <em data-start=\"337\" data-end=\"348\">their own<\/em> cultural norms and values. Those perceptions are shaped by the teachings and experiences of their culture, not yours. The ideas and theories presented in this chapter highlight how we study the structures of culture, values, and communication. They provide us with a framework for discussing and comparing cultures, but it is essential to remember that cultures are heterogeneous and constantly evolving. One size does not fit all, and nonverbal communication is often ambiguous, even in the best of times.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Key Terms<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"868\" data-end=\"893\">Nonverbal communication<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"896\" data-end=\"912\">Mixed messages<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"915\" data-end=\"935\">Facial expressions<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"938\" data-end=\"951\">Eye contact<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"954\" data-end=\"964\">Gestures<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"967\" data-end=\"976\">Emblems<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"979\" data-end=\"993\">Illustrators<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"996\" data-end=\"1008\">Regulators<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1011\" data-end=\"1021\">Adaptors<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1024\" data-end=\"1033\">Posture<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1036\" data-end=\"1047\">Immediacy<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1050\" data-end=\"1057\">Power<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1060\" data-end=\"1070\">Vocalics<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1073\" data-end=\"1084\">Proxemics<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1087\" data-end=\"1098\">Territory<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1101\" data-end=\"1124\">Conversation distance<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1127\" data-end=\"1136\">Haptics<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1139\" data-end=\"1151\">Chronemics<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1154\" data-end=\"1179\">Monochronic\/Polychronic<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1182\" data-end=\"1203\">Past\/Present\/Future<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1206\" data-end=\"1227\">Physical appearance<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1230\" data-end=\"1241\">Artifacts<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1257\">Environment<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1260\" data-end=\"1276\">Cultural space<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1279\" data-end=\"1296\">Nonverbal codes<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1299\" data-end=\"1321\">Intentional messages<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1324\" data-end=\"1348\">Unintentional messages<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1351\" data-end=\"1371\">Contact\/Noncontact<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\" data-start=\"1374\" data-end=\"1392\">Halo\/Horn Effect<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Reflection Questions\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li data-start=\"1430\" data-end=\"1627\">When you observe the nonverbal behavior of others, what do you notice first? Why do you think this is the case? Is there something in your culture that taught you to focus on that behavior first?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1631\" data-end=\"1849\">Shaking hands is a standard form of greeting in many cultures. Have you ever extended your hand and had someone refuse to shake it\u2014or have you refused to shake an extended hand? What did you think in that moment, and how did you feel?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1853\" data-end=\"2059\">Language is a big part of communication, but how do you communicate with someone who doesn\u2019t understand what you are saying? What nonverbal codes do you use, and how do you know if you\u2019ve been successful?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2063\" data-end=\"2315\">Eye contact has different meanings across cultures. How do you react when you are communicating with someone who follows different cultural rules for eye contact? How do you adapt your approach, and how do you know if your ideas have been understood?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2319\" data-end=\"2561\">Bathing and personal hygiene standards vary widely across cultures. Should you say something to someone who smells? Why or why not? How might you approach a situation with a roommate, classmate, or coworker whose hygiene creates discomfort?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p data-start=\"290\" data-end=\"306\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"3332\" data-end=\"3464\">Birdwhistell, R. L. (1973). <em data-start=\"336\" data-end=\"395\">Kinesics and context: Essays on body motion communication<\/em>. University of Pennsylvania Press.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3332\" data-end=\"3464\">Burgoon, J. K., Buller, D. B., &amp; Woodall, W. G. (1996). <em data-start=\"490\" data-end=\"538\">Nonverbal communication: The unspoken dialogue<\/em> (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"566\" data-end=\"735\">Burgoon, J. K., &amp; Hoobler, G. D. (2002). Nonverbal signals. In M. L. Knapp &amp; J. A. Daly (Eds.), <em data-start=\"662\" data-end=\"703\">Handbook of interpersonal communication<\/em> (3rd ed., pp. 240\u2013299). Sage.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"737\" data-end=\"852\">Chen, G. M., &amp; Starosta, W. J. (2005). <em data-start=\"776\" data-end=\"820\">Foundations of intercultural communication<\/em>. University Press of America.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"854\" data-end=\"978\">Ekman, P. (1976). <em data-start=\"872\" data-end=\"905\">Movements with precise meanings<\/em>. Semiotica, 15(4), 335\u2013344. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"934\" data-end=\"976\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/semi.1975.15.4.335<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"980\" data-end=\"1064\">Haller, M., &amp; Peeters, J. (2019). <em data-start=\"1014\" data-end=\"1050\">Body language: The myths and facts<\/em>. Routledge.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1066\" data-end=\"1310\">Jones, S. E., &amp; LeBaron, C. D. (2002). Research on the relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication: Emerging integrations. In M. L. Knapp &amp; J. A. Daly (Eds.), <em data-start=\"1237\" data-end=\"1278\">Handbook of interpersonal communication<\/em> (3rd ed., pp. 499\u2013521). Sage.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1312\" data-end=\"1418\">Knapp, M. L., &amp; Hall, J. A. (2002). <em data-start=\"1348\" data-end=\"1394\">Nonverbal communication in human interaction<\/em> (5th ed.). Wadsworth.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1420\" data-end=\"1500\">McLean, S. (2003). <em data-start=\"1439\" data-end=\"1482\">The basics of interpersonal communication<\/em>. Allyn &amp; Bacon.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Solomon, R. C. (2017). <em data-start=\"1525\" data-end=\"1553\">The philosophy of emotions<\/em>. Springer.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Burgoon, J. K., Buller, D. B., &amp; Woodall, W. G. (1996). <em data-start=\"3390\" data-end=\"3438\">Nonverbal communication: The unspoken dialogue<\/em> (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Hall, E. T. (1963). <em data-start=\"3487\" data-end=\"3535\">A system for the notation of proxemic behavior<\/em>. <em data-start=\"3537\" data-end=\"3566\">American Anthropologist, 65<\/em>(5), 1003\u20131026. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"3582\" data-end=\"3627\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/aa.1963.65.5.02a00020<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Mehrabian, A. (1972). <em data-start=\"3654\" data-end=\"3679\">Nonverbal communication<\/em>. Aldine-Atherton.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). <em data-start=\"2830\" data-end=\"2861\">Environmental literacy report<\/em>. U.S. Government Printing Office.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Floyd, K. (1999). <em data-start=\"2918\" data-end=\"2974\">Communicating affection: Nonverbal expressions of love<\/em>. State University of New York Press.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Hall, E. T. (1963). <em data-start=\"3036\" data-end=\"3084\">A system for the notation of proxemic behavior<\/em>. <em data-start=\"3086\" data-end=\"3115\">American Anthropologist, 65<\/em>(5), 1003\u20131026. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"3131\" data-end=\"3176\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/aa.1963.65.5.02a00020<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Hall, E. T. (1983). <em data-start=\"3201\" data-end=\"3249\">The dance of life: The other dimension of time<\/em>. Anchor Books.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Kluckhohn, F. R., &amp; Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). <em data-start=\"3054\" data-end=\"3088\">Variations in value orientations<\/em>. Row, Peterson and Company.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Martin, J. N., &amp; Nakayama, T. K. (2007). <em data-start=\"3162\" data-end=\"3203\">Intercultural communication in contexts<\/em> (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Aslam, M. M. (2006). Are you selling the right colour? A cross\u2010cultural review of colour as a marketing cue. <em data-start=\"3606\" data-end=\"3647\">Journal of Marketing Communications, 12<\/em>(1), 15\u201330. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"3659\" data-end=\"3700\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13527260500247827<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Classen, C., Howes, D., &amp; Synnott, A. (1994). <em data-start=\"3751\" data-end=\"3789\">Aroma: The cultural history of smell<\/em>. Routledge.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Foucault, M. (1970). <em data-start=\"3827\" data-end=\"3886\">The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences<\/em>. Pantheon Books.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Gibson, D. E., Hardy, J. H., &amp; Buckley, M. R. (2009). Understanding the role of organizational culture in creativity and innovation. <em data-start=\"4041\" data-end=\"4070\">Organizational Dynamics, 38<\/em>(3), 214\u2013225. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"4084\" data-end=\"4128\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.orgdyn.2009.04.006<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1566\">Martin, J. N., &amp; Nakayama, T. K. (2017). <em data-start=\"4174\" data-end=\"4215\">Intercultural communication in contexts<\/em> (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_71_1200\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1200\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Arm and hand movements are used for communication.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1259\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1259\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Represent a specific verbal meaning and can replace or reinforce words.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1153\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1153\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Nonverbal gesture used to communicate our message effectively and reinforce our point.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_964\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_964\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Nonverbal messages that control, maintain, or discourage interaction.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1443\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1443\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Help us feel comfortable or indicate emotions or moods.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1151\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1151\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The degree to which you find someone interesting and attractive.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_981\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_981\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Refers to communication through physical distance or space.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_881\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_881\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The space you claim as your own, are responsible for, or are willing to defend.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1336\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1336\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The \u201cbubble\u201d of space surrounding each individual when having a conversation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1192\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1192\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Touch<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1344\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1344\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>People stand closer together while talking, make more direct eye contact, touch more frequently, and speak in louder voices.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1400\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1400\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The study of how we refer to and perceive time.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1061\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1061\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Being punctual, completing tasks, and keeping schedules are valued and may be more important than building or maintaining personal relationships.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1003\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1003\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>It is expected that many events happen at once, and things get done because of personal relationships.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1204\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1204\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The optimistic idea that things will get better in the future, or the future will be \u201cnew and improved.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_986\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_986\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Recognize the value of living in the here and now.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1194\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1194\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The first impression was positive; therefore, all impressions will be positive.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1164\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1164\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The first impression was negative; therefore, all future impressions will be negative.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1428\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1428\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The things we possess that influence how we see ourselves and that we use to express our identity to others.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1244\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1244\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Involves the physical aspects of our surroundings.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_916\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_916\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Another way to send nonverbal messages.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1378\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1378\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A powerful nonverbal message across cultural boundaries.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1315\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1315\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The social and cultural contexts in which our identities are formed.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_1171\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_1171\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Can be a specific address, city, state, region, or even a nation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_71_969\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_71_969\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Loyalty to an area that holds cultural meaning.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-71","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/71","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/71\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1463,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/71\/revisions\/1463"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/71\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=71"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=71"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=71"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=71"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}