{"id":61,"date":"2025-08-29T20:42:13","date_gmt":"2025-08-29T20:42:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/chapter\/chapter-4-verbal-communication\/"},"modified":"2026-03-10T17:33:41","modified_gmt":"2026-03-10T17:33:41","slug":"chapter-4-verbal-communication","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/chapter\/chapter-4-verbal-communication\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 4: Verbal Communication","rendered":"Chapter 4: Verbal Communication"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"chapter-4-\u2013-verbal-communication\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\"><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nWhen you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"450\" data-end=\"503\">Identify the role that language plays in a culture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"450\" data-end=\"503\">Define and explain the principles of verbal communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"571\" data-end=\"649\">Explain why language can also be an obstacle to intercultural communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"653\" data-end=\"698\">Discuss variations in communication styles.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"702\" data-end=\"770\">Articulate the differences between translation and interpretation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"193\" data-end=\"681\">Introduction<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"193\" data-end=\"681\">On the first day of class, a student raises their hand and asks a question. Another student nearby sighs, rolls their eyes, and mutters, \u201cWhy would you ask that?\u201d The student who asked the question shrinks back and does not speak again for the rest of the session. After class, the two students leave with completely different interpretations of what happened. One believes they were curious and engaged. The other believes the question was a waste of time and disrespectful to the group.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"683\" data-end=\"906\">Nothing about this interaction involved insults or raised voices. It was entirely verbal. Words were chosen. Meanings were assumed. Cultural expectations about speaking, participation, and respect quietly shaped the moment. Verbal communication often feels straightforward because we use language every day. Yet the ways people speak, interrupt, question authority, offer opinions, or remain silent vary widely across cultures. In some settings, speaking up signals interest and confidence. In others, it signals arrogance or a lack of respect. A direct statement might feel honest to one person and harsh to another. A polite response might feel considerate to one listener and evasive to someone else.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1389\" data-end=\"1759\">Language also carries identity. Accents, dialects, word choice, and fluency affect how people are perceived and how much credibility they are granted. These judgments often happen quickly and without reflection. As a result, verbal communication becomes one of the most common sources of misunderstanding in intercultural interactions, even when intentions are positive.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1761\" data-end=\"2165\">This chapter explores how verbal communication works across cultures. You will examine how meaning is shaped by language structure, communication style, and cultural values. You will also learn how to listen more carefully to what people mean, not only to what they say. Developing this awareness helps you communicate more effectively in classrooms, workplaces, relationships, and everyday interactions.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"777\" data-end=\"802\">Language and Culture<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"1219\">How do you communicate? As we learned in Chapter 1, communication is the process of creating and sharing meaning with others. Former U.S. Senator and linguist S. I. Hayakawa argued that meaning resides not in words themselves, but in the people who use them. Family, community, school, and other social groups use language as a system to teach us the rules, norms, customs, traditions, and rituals of our culture.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1221\" data-end=\"1530\">In most cultures, being articulate, whether in reading, writing, or speaking, is highly valued. But effective communication is not just about producing words; it also involves listening and knowing when silence is appropriate. In short, verbal communication is shaped by its users' cultural experiences.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1532\" data-end=\"2011\">Today, roughly 6,500 languages are spoken worldwide, but about 2,000 have fewer than 1,000 speakers (Linguistic Society of America, 2019). As of 2018, the ten most widely spoken languages, accounting for nearly half of the world\u2019s population, are Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, and Punjabi (Lahnda) (Statista, 2019). Chinese and Tamil are among the oldest languages still spoken today (Taleninstituut, 2019).<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2626\">However, many languages are endangered. It is estimated that at least half of the world\u2019s languages will disappear within the next century. In North America alone, only 165 Indigenous languages are still spoken, and among these, only eight have more than 10,000 speakers. Only a handful of older individuals speak around 75 languages, and they are expected to vanish soon (Linguistic Society of America, 2019). When a language dies, a culture can die with it. The loss severs a community\u2019s connection to its past, traditions, and unique knowledge, as the group becomes absorbed into broader political and economic systems.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1027\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image26.jpeg\" alt=\"Broken tablet written in extinct languages. \" width=\"1027\" height=\"457\" \/> Figure 4.0 \u2013 Extinct Languages of Linear A &amp; Linear B[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"161\" data-end=\"187\">The Study of Language<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"189\" data-end=\"620\"><strong data-start=\"189\" data-end=\"204\">Linguistics<\/strong> is the study of language and its structure. It explores both specific languages and the general properties shared by most languages. Linguistics also examines how languages vary (such as through dialects), how they evolve, how children learn them, and how they are stored and processed in the brain. These areas of study make linguistics crucial to understanding intercultural communication.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"622\" data-end=\"666\">Linguists investigate several major areas:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"668\" data-end=\"1925\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"668\" data-end=\"872\">\r\n<p data-start=\"670\" data-end=\"872\"><strong data-start=\"670\" data-end=\"683\">[pb_glossary id=\"1009\"]Phonetics[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> \u2013 the study of how speech sounds are produced, heard, and analyzed acoustically.<br data-start=\"764\" data-end=\"767\" \/><em data-start=\"769\" data-end=\"854\">Example: noticing the difference between how the \u201cp\u201d sound is produced in the words<\/em> pin <em data-start=\"859\" data-end=\"864\">and<\/em> spin.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"874\" data-end=\"1057\">\r\n<p data-start=\"876\" data-end=\"1057\"><strong data-start=\"876\" data-end=\"889\">[pb_glossary id=\"1007\"]Phonology[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> \u2013 the study of sound patterns within a language.<br data-start=\"938\" data-end=\"941\" \/><em data-start=\"943\" data-end=\"1055\">Example: In English, words cannot begin with the sound combination \u201cng,\u201d but in some Asian languages, they can.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1059\" data-end=\"1261\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1061\" data-end=\"1261\"><strong data-start=\"1061\" data-end=\"1075\">[pb_glossary id=\"1054\"]Morphology[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> \u2013 the study of how words are formed and structured.<br data-start=\"1127\" data-end=\"1130\" \/><em data-start=\"1132\" data-end=\"1259\">Example: understanding that the word \u201cunhappiness\u201d is made up of three parts: un- (prefix), happy (root), and -ness (suffix).<\/em><\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1263\" data-end=\"1490\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1265\" data-end=\"1490\"><strong data-start=\"1265\" data-end=\"1275\">[pb_glossary id=\"889\"]Syntax[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> \u2013 the rules and patterns governing sentence structure.<br data-start=\"1330\" data-end=\"1333\" \/><em data-start=\"1335\" data-end=\"1488\">Example: English typically follows a Subject-Verb-Object pattern (\u201cShe ate lunch\u201d), while Japanese often follows Subject-Object-Verb (\u201cShe lunch ate\u201d).<\/em><\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1492\" data-end=\"1705\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1494\" data-end=\"1705\"><strong data-start=\"1494\" data-end=\"1507\">[pb_glossary id=\"933\"]Semantics[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> \u2013 the study of meaning in language.<br data-start=\"1543\" data-end=\"1546\" \/><em data-start=\"1548\" data-end=\"1602\">Example: the difference in meaning between the words<\/em> house <em data-start=\"1609\" data-end=\"1614\">and<\/em> home, <em data-start=\"1621\" data-end=\"1703\">which may refer to the same building but carry different emotional connotations.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1707\" data-end=\"1925\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1709\" data-end=\"1925\"><strong data-start=\"1709\" data-end=\"1723\">Pragmatics<\/strong> \u2013 the study of how language functions in context.<br data-start=\"1773\" data-end=\"1776\" \/><i>Example: when someone says, \u201cIt\u2019s cold in here,\u201d they may not just be making an observation; they might be politely asking you to close a window.<\/i><\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"1927\" data-end=\"2316\">Studying linguistics offers insight into one of the most fundamental aspects of being human, the ability to communicate effectively. It helps us understand not only how language works but also how it changes over time and adapts across cultures. Because language is central to all human interaction, knowledge of linguistics is foundational to understanding culture and intercultural communication.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"165\" data-end=\"204\">Principles of Verbal Communication<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"206\" data-end=\"521\">Although linguistics focuses on the structure of language, communication scholars are equally interested in how language functions in everyday interactions. Within intercultural communication, verbal communication is more than just words on a page or sounds in the air; it is a living exchange of cultural meaning.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"523\" data-end=\"819\">Language both reflects and shapes the cultures that use it. Through words, we carry traditions, express values, negotiate relationships, and sometimes even create misunderstandings. As a result, communication scholars identify several core principles that apply to all forms of verbal communication.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"821\" data-end=\"1108\">In the following section, we will examine these principles in more detail and consider how they influence everyday communication across cultural boundaries. Each principle highlights an essential way in which words both enable and complicate the process of sharing meaning with others.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"760\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image27.jpeg\" alt=\"Map depicting how people refer to soda throughout the United States. \" width=\"760\" height=\"400\" \/> Figure 4.1 \u2013 Language is Arbitrary. Soda, Pop, and Coke in geotagged tweets[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"143\" data-end=\"182\">Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"184\" data-end=\"483\">Words, by themselves, have no inherent meaning. Humans assign meanings to words, and these meanings evolve over time and across cultures. For example, we negotiate the meaning of the word\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><em>\"home,<\/em>\"<em>\u00a0<\/em>sometimes through images, sometimes through dialogue, to share a sense of it <\/span>with others.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"485\" data-end=\"1153\">Words carry two types of meaning: <strong data-start=\"519\" data-end=\"533\">[pb_glossary id=\"1297\"]denotative[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> and <strong data-start=\"538\" data-end=\"553\">[pb_glossary id=\"1357\"]connotative[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. The denotative meaning is the direct, dictionary definition of a word. The connotative meaning, on the other hand, resides in users' minds and reflects emotional or cultural associations. Connotations can be positive or negative, individual or collective, but rarely universal. For instance, in the United States, describing someone as having <em data-start=\"903\" data-end=\"925\">rugged individualism<\/em> suggests strength and independence, both of which are often valued. In cultures with a collectivistic orientation, however, the exact phrase might carry a more negative connotation, emphasizing selfishness or separation from the group.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1155\" data-end=\"1790\">Translation across languages demonstrates just how slippery meanings can be. For example, the 1998 film <em data-start=\"1259\" data-end=\"1289\">There\u2019s Something About Mary<\/em> proved difficult to translate for foreign audiences. In Poland, the title\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">was changed\u00a0<em>to \"For the Love of a Blonde,<\/em>\"<\/span>\u00a0aligning with local humor about blondes. In France, it was translated as\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><em>\"Mary at All Costs,<\/em>\" while in Thailand, the title was changed to <em>\"My True Love Will Stand All Outrageous Events,<\/em>\"<\/span> dropping the reference to Mary altogether (Sterngold, 1998). Even when audiences share a common language, capturing meaning can be challenging\u2014across languages and cultures, the difficulty multiplies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"1797\" data-end=\"1820\">Language Has Rules<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1822\" data-end=\"2269\">All languages operate by rules. <strong data-start=\"1854\" data-end=\"1876\">Constitutive rules<\/strong> determine what words mean and which words represent which objects (Searle, 1964). <strong data-start=\"1959\" data-end=\"1979\">[pb_glossary id=\"966\"]Regulative rules[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> govern how we arrange words into sentences and how we use them in conversation. Without knowledge of these rules, clear communication is nearly impossible. Misunderstanding rules leads not only to confusion but also to frustration when people cannot make sense of one another\u2019s messages.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"524\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image28.png\" alt=\"Regulative rules. \" width=\"524\" height=\"349\" \/> Figure 4.2 \u2013 Regulative Rules. Present einen[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"224\" data-end=\"245\">Language Evolves<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"247\" data-end=\"679\">Although many people view language as fixed, language is constantly changing. As time and technology advance, new words are created, old words are repurposed, and some words fall out of use. For instance, recent additions to American English include <em data-start=\"491\" data-end=\"497\">blog<\/em>, <em data-start=\"499\" data-end=\"508\">sexting<\/em>, and <em data-start=\"514\" data-end=\"523\">selfie.<\/em> Repurposed words include <em data-start=\"549\" data-end=\"556\">tweet<\/em> and <em data-start=\"561\" data-end=\"566\">app<\/em> (short for application), while terms such as <em data-start=\"612\" data-end=\"622\">affright<\/em>, <em data-start=\"624\" data-end=\"636\">cannonade,<\/em> and <em data-start=\"641\" data-end=\"647\">fain<\/em> have mainly become obsolete.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"681\" data-end=\"982\">Languages also borrow from one another.\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">Place names in the United States, such as\u00a0<em>Wisconsin,<\/em>\u00a0<em>Oregon,<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Wyoming,<\/em> come from Native American languages.<\/span>\u00a0Words like <em data-start=\"847\" data-end=\"856\">typhoon<\/em> (from Mandarin Chinese) and <em data-start=\"885\" data-end=\"896\">influenza<\/em> (from Italian) also illustrate how languages expand through the adoption of outside influences.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"989\" data-end=\"1022\">Language Shapes Our Thoughts<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1024\" data-end=\"1492\">Language does more than convey ideas; it shapes how we think about the world and our relationships. Edward Sapir\u2019s early 20th-century work on Native American languages suggested that language has a powerful influence on perception and interaction (Gumperz &amp; Levinson, 1996). Building on Sapir\u2019s ideas, Benjamin Lee Whorf developed what became known as the <strong data-start=\"1374\" data-end=\"1400\">[pb_glossary id=\"949\"]Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, or <strong data-start=\"1405\" data-end=\"1431\">[pb_glossary id=\"1107\"]linguistic determinism[\/pb_glossary], <\/strong>the claim that language defines the boundaries of thought.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1494\" data-end=\"1887\">Later scholars such as Derrida (1974), Foucault (1977), and Anzald\u00faa (1987) extended this line of thinking. Anzald\u00faa (1987) famously declared, <em data-start=\"1637\" data-end=\"1657\">\u201cI am my language\u201d<\/em> (p. 59), underscoring the profound connection between language and identity. However, other scholars (e.g., Piaget, 1929; Pinker, 1994) critiqued strict linguistic determinism, noting that human thought often exceeds linguistic boundaries.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"2128\">Most contemporary scholars support the idea of <strong data-start=\"1936\" data-end=\"1961\">[pb_glossary id=\"1105\"]linguistic relativity[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, which recognizes that while language may not completely determine thought, it strongly influences how members of different cultures perceive and interpret reality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Exercise<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div class=\"chapter-4-\u2013-verbal-communication\">\r\n<p data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"1355\">Watch Lera Boroditsky\u2019s TED Talk <em data-start=\"865\" data-end=\"903\">How Language Shapes the Way We Think.<\/em> She illustrates linguistic relativity with fascinating cross-cultural examples, ranging from languages that use cardinal directions rather than left and right to how grammar shapes people's perceptions of time and agency. This connects directly to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and reminds us that language isn\u2019t just about words; it actively shapes how we think, remember, and interact with the world.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1362\" data-end=\"1564\">While watching, ask yourself: what examples from your own life or culture illustrate how language influences thought? Can you think of times when language made you notice, or overlook, something meaningful?<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIf the above activity does not work, here is a link to the original video: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">How language shapes the way we think | Lera Boroditsky | TED<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"1355\">Cultural Variations in Language<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p data-start=\"2173\" data-end=\"2665\">For intercultural communication to succeed, cultural context must be taken into account. Words do not carry meaning on their own\u2014they are shaped by cultural rules that determine when and how speech acts (greetings, apologies, requests, etc.) are performed. For example, a grammatically correct sentence may still be offensive if used in the wrong cultural context. These differences underscore the importance of understanding cultural values and expectations when using language across cultures.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2173\" data-end=\"2665\">Language choices do more than convey information; they signal identity, power, and belonging. These themes will reappear in later chapters on barriers, conflict, and workplace communication, where verbal misunderstandings can have lasting consequences.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"2672\" data-end=\"2724\">Attitudes Toward Speaking, Silence, and Writing<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"2726\" data-end=\"3082\">Attitudes toward language use vary widely across cultures. In the United States, Canada, and much of Western Europe, speaking is highly valued. Articulateness is often equated with intelligence, and silence may be interpreted negatively, as indifference, confusion, or even hostility. In these contexts, people usually rush to fill silences in conversation.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3084\" data-end=\"3579\">By contrast, in many Asian cultures, silence is regarded as a sign of respect and thoughtfulness. Pausing before responding shows that a question is being considered carefully. In conflicts, silence may be preferred to avoid offense and preserve harmony, or to \u201csave face.\u201d Similarly, in hierarchical cultures with high power distance, junior members may remain silent until invited to speak. In collectivistic cultures, silence can signal group loyalty when an individual\u2019s opinion differs from the majority.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3581\" data-end=\"3741\">Silence is also valued in many African and Native American traditions, where it can represent comfort, presence, or reflection rather than absence of thought.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3743\" data-end=\"4027\">Cultural differences also extend to writing. In the United States, written agreements (e.g., contracts) often carry more weight than spoken promises. In other cultures, however, verbal agreements or even gestures, such as handshakes, may hold greater significance than written documents.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"443\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image29.jpeg\" alt=\"Sign on white board that reads Next gathering: Drop-in Silence Friday 5:30-7:00 pm. Arrive and leave when you like...Bring a friend, spread the word. ALL WELCOME !!\" width=\"443\" height=\"332\" \/> Figure 4.3 \u2013 Cultural view of silence[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"255\" data-end=\"287\">Language Can Be an Obstacle<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"289\" data-end=\"478\">Language can both connect and divide us. While it enables communication, it can also create misunderstandings. Clich\u00e9s, jargon, and slang often present barriers in intercultural contexts.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"480\" data-end=\"1709\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"480\" data-end=\"850\">\r\n<p data-start=\"482\" data-end=\"850\"><strong data-start=\"482\" data-end=\"493\">[pb_glossary id=\"1395\"]Clich\u00e9s[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are overused phrases that lose impact and originality. They are often dismissed as lazy communication because listeners tend to gloss over them. In intercultural settings, clich\u00e9s can reinforce stereotypes. For example, saying something should be \u201cavoided like the plague\u201d illustrates how easily clich\u00e9s can lose clarity or carry unintended connotations.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"852\" data-end=\"1314\">\r\n<p data-start=\"854\" data-end=\"1314\"><strong data-start=\"854\" data-end=\"864\">[pb_glossary id=\"1118\"]Jargon[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is occupation- or group-specific language designed for efficiency within specialized fields. Medical professionals, IT specialists, and gamers often rely on jargon. Examples include <em data-start=\"1047\" data-end=\"1058\">contusion<\/em> (bruise), <em data-start=\"1069\" data-end=\"1078\">sutures<\/em> (stitches), <em data-start=\"1091\" data-end=\"1098\">cache<\/em> (storage area), <em data-start=\"1115\" data-end=\"1120\">AFK<\/em> (away from keyboard), and <em data-start=\"1147\" data-end=\"1162\">bullet sponge<\/em> (a video game term). For outsiders, jargon can be confusing or misleading, so in intercultural communication, it\u2019s best to avoid it and use more common terms.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1316\" data-end=\"1709\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1318\" data-end=\"1709\"><strong data-start=\"1318\" data-end=\"1327\">[pb_glossary id=\"918\"]Slang[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> involves informal or newly invented words often used within specific groups. Unlike jargon, slang is not tied to a profession and tends to evolve quickly. Slang may also function as a marker of in-groups versus out-groups. A typical example in U.S. youth culture <span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">is the use of words like\u00a0<em>\"lit\"<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>\"salty.<\/em>\"<\/span>\u00a0Dictionaries such as <em data-start=\"1649\" data-end=\"1667\">Urban Dictionary<\/em> often track the emergence of new slang.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1755\">Variations in Communication Styles<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1757\" data-end=\"2118\">The way people use language is shaped by cultural values and assumptions about human relationships. Cultural rules regarding when and how speech acts (e.g., greetings, apologies, expressions of gratitude) are performed can vary significantly across societies. Understanding these differences in communication styles is essential for effective intercultural interaction.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 data-start=\"2120\" data-end=\"2154\">High- and Low-Context Styles<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"2156\" data-end=\"2252\">Hall and Hall (1987) distinguished between <strong data-start=\"2199\" data-end=\"2215\">[pb_glossary id=\"1183\"]high-context[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> and [pb_glossary id=\"1093\"]<strong data-start=\"2220\" data-end=\"2235\">low-context<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary]communication:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"2254\" data-end=\"2837\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2254\" data-end=\"2540\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2256\" data-end=\"2540\"><strong data-start=\"2256\" data-end=\"2281\">[pb_glossary id=\"1181\"]High-context cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (e.g., China, Japan, South Korea) rely heavily on shared knowledge and context. Much meaning is implied rather than explicitly stated. Silence, nonverbal cues, and indirect hints often carry as much weight as words. These cultures are usually collectivistic.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2541\" data-end=\"2837\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2543\" data-end=\"2837\"><strong data-start=\"2543\" data-end=\"2567\">[pb_glossary id=\"1091\"]Low-context cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (e.g., the United States, Germany, Switzerland) rely on explicit verbal messages. Meaning lies in the words themselves, with less dependence on context. Arguments are expected to be direct, detailed, and logically structured. These cultures are often individualistic.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"2839\" data-end=\"2871\">Direct and Indirect Styles<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"2873\" data-end=\"2940\">Directness refers to how openly speakers reveal their intentions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"2942\" data-end=\"3375\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2942\" data-end=\"3115\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2944\" data-end=\"3115\"><strong data-start=\"2944\" data-end=\"2961\">Direct styles<\/strong> express needs, wants, and opinions clearly and publicly. U.S. business communication, for example, favors clarity and brevity (\u201cWhat can I do for you?\u201d).<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3116\" data-end=\"3375\">\r\n<p data-start=\"3118\" data-end=\"3375\"><strong data-start=\"3118\" data-end=\"3137\">Indirect styles<\/strong> emphasize relationships and harmony over bluntness. In many Latin American contexts, conversations often begin with small talk before moving on to business matters. Indirectness allows speakers to \u201csave face\u201d and maintain positive relationships.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"3377\" data-end=\"3415\">Elaborate and Understated Styles<\/h3>\r\n<ul data-start=\"3417\" data-end=\"3793\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3417\" data-end=\"3608\">\r\n<p data-start=\"3419\" data-end=\"3608\"><strong data-start=\"3419\" data-end=\"3439\">Elaborate styles<\/strong> use expressive, dramatic, or exaggerated language. Found in cultures such as France, Latin America, and the Arab world, elaboration signals involvement and sincerity.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3609\" data-end=\"3793\">\r\n<p data-start=\"3611\" data-end=\"3793\"><strong data-start=\"3611\" data-end=\"3633\">Understated styles<\/strong> favor simplicity, restraint, and silence. In Japan, for example, understatement reflects a preference for modesty and harmony (Nakane, 1970; Barnlund, 1975).<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"3795\" data-end=\"3827\">Other Communication Styles<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"3829\" data-end=\"3879\">Scholars have also identified additional styles:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"3881\" data-end=\"4598\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3881\" data-end=\"4030\">\r\n<p data-start=\"3883\" data-end=\"4030\"><strong data-start=\"3883\" data-end=\"3908\">[pb_glossary id=\"1366\"]Concrete[\/pb_glossary] vs. [pb_glossary id=\"1455\"]abstract[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>: Concrete styles emphasize specific examples and stories, while abstract styles stress general principles and theories.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4031\" data-end=\"4237\">\r\n<p data-start=\"4033\" data-end=\"4237\"><strong data-start=\"4033\" data-end=\"4056\">[pb_glossary id=\"1112\"]Linear[\/pb_glossary] vs. [pb_glossary id=\"1398\"]circular[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>: Linear styles follow a straightforward, logical progression toward a conclusion. Circular styles provide context and supporting ideas, sometimes leaving the main point implicit.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4238\" data-end=\"4413\">\r\n<p data-start=\"4240\" data-end=\"4413\"><strong data-start=\"4240\" data-end=\"4263\">Formal vs. informal<\/strong>: Formal styles reflect hierarchical relationships and high power distance, while informal styles reflect egalitarian values and low power distance.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4414\" data-end=\"4598\">\r\n<p data-start=\"4416\" data-end=\"4598\"><strong data-start=\"4416\" data-end=\"4456\">[pb_glossary id=\"939\"]Self-enhancement[\/pb_glossary] vs. [pb_glossary id=\"941\"]self-effacement[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>: Self-enhancement emphasizes personal accomplishments and assertiveness, while self-effacement emphasizes humility, modesty, and restraint.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"4605\" data-end=\"4624\">Code-Switching<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"4626\" data-end=\"4800\">No culture relies on only one communication style in every situation. Individuals often shift between styles depending on the context, a phenomenon known as <strong data-start=\"4779\" data-end=\"4798\">code-switching.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4802\" data-end=\"4979\">Code-switching involves adjusting language, tone, or style to align with conversational partners or social settings. This can happen consciously or unconsciously. For example:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"4981\" data-end=\"5177\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4981\" data-end=\"5042\">\r\n<p data-start=\"4983\" data-end=\"5042\">Adopting a southern accent while visiting the U.S. South.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"5043\" data-end=\"5099\">\r\n<p data-start=\"5045\" data-end=\"5099\">Using formal speech with parents to ask for a favor.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"5100\" data-end=\"5177\">\r\n<p data-start=\"5102\" data-end=\"5177\">Switching between languages to preserve meaning or signal group identity.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"5179\" data-end=\"5317\">Code-switching serves many purposes, including expressing solidarity, showing respect, adapting to context, or bridging linguistic gaps.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"284\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image30.jpeg\" alt=\"Sign on the side of a bus stop that read &quot;HELLO PARENTS! We would like to inform that happy meal can bestallas enlight tallriksmodellen. PS. If your kids ask about this affisch, tell them it's about bolaneranta or something. \" width=\"284\" height=\"379\" \/> Figure 4.4 \u2013 Codeswitching[\/caption]\r\n<h2 data-start=\"210\" data-end=\"255\">Adapting as Intercultural Communicators<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"257\" data-end=\"839\">For intercultural communicators, adapting to others\u2019 preferences is part of effective interaction (Bianconi, 2002). You notice how quickly or slowly people speak, how long they take to respond, and whether their style is direct or indirect. You may also need to practice cultural norms for nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact, touch, and appropriate displays of respect within power relationships. Adaptation, however, requires care. While a sincere effort to learn is often appreciated, imitation can come across as mocking or disrespectful if it feels insincere.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"846\" data-end=\"882\">Translation and Interpretation<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"884\" data-end=\"1081\">Because no one can learn every language, translation and interpretation help bridge communication across linguistic boundaries. While the two practices are closely related, they are distinct.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1083\" data-end=\"1484\"><strong data-start=\"1083\" data-end=\"1098\">[pb_glossary id=\"871\"]Translation[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> involves producing a written text in one language that conveys the meaning of a written text in another. Translators typically read the source material, interpret its meaning, and then craft a version in the target language that preserves the original's style, tone, and accuracy. They are often subject-matter experts and skilled linguists with strong writing skills.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1486\" data-end=\"2072\"><strong data-start=\"1486\" data-end=\"1504\">[pb_glossary id=\"1125\"]Interpretation[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the oral rendering of spoken language. It is not a word-for-word substitution but a process of conveying meaning in ways that are clear and culturally appropriate to the target audience. Interpreters rephrase idioms, metaphors, and culturally specific expressions so that listeners can understand the original speaker's intent. Depending on the situation, interpretation may coincide with the speaker's speech (simultaneously) or occur consecutively (during pauses). Interpreters must have linguistic expertise, cultural knowledge, and excellent memory skills.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2074\" data-end=\"2305\">Not all bilingual individuals are effective translators or interpreters. These roles require not just fluency in two languages, but also cultural fluency and the ability to manage complex interpersonal and intercultural dynamics.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"2312\" data-end=\"2333\">Language Policy<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"2335\" data-end=\"2907\">Language is also managed at a societal level through policy. Language policies often reflect broader cultural and political debates about identity, belonging, and power. For example, while the United States has no official legal language, English serves as the <em data-start=\"2596\" data-end=\"2606\">de facto<\/em> national language, and 27 states have passed \u201cOfficial English\u201d laws (USConstitution.net, 2019). Former U.S. Senator S. I. Hayakawa, mentioned at the start of this chapter, repeatedly introduced legislation to designate English as the official language of the United States, though it never passed.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2909\" data-end=\"3298\">Other nations take a different approach. The European Union recognizes 23 official languages and more than 60 indigenous languages. Canada has two official languages, English and French, and recognizes 70 indigenous languages from 12 language families. China recognizes Mandarin (Putonghua) as its official language, alongside seven additional language families and more than 300 dialects.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3300\" data-end=\"3433\">These examples illustrate how language policies are intertwined with culture, class, ethnicity, politics, and economics.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Case Check: \"Just Be Direct\"<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2153\" data-end=\"2424\">During a class discussion, one student speaks bluntly and openly challenges ideas. Another student rarely speaks and later emails the instructor with concerns. The first student believes open debate is respectful. The second believes public disagreement is uncomfortable.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2426\" data-end=\"2450\"><strong data-start=\"2426\" data-end=\"2450\">Reflection Questions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul data-start=\"2451\" data-end=\"2619\">\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2451\" data-end=\"2515\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2453\" data-end=\"2515\">How do different norms around directness affect participation?<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2516\" data-end=\"2569\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2518\" data-end=\"2569\">How might culture influence perceptions of respect?<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2570\" data-end=\"2619\">\r\n<p data-start=\"2572\" data-end=\"2619\">What verbal strategies could support inclusion?<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"3440\" data-end=\"3456\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"3458\" data-end=\"3802\">Philosopher Bertrand Russell (1938) observed that all language carries power, and all power is rooted in language. Shared language not only enables understanding but also fosters a sense of belonging. Language shapes culture, and culture shapes language\u2014together they influence how people connect, identify, and communicate across boundaries.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Key Terms<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"3841\">Linguistics<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3844\" data-end=\"3864\">Denotative meaning<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3867\" data-end=\"3888\">Connotative meaning<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3891\" data-end=\"3911\">Constitutive rules<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3914\" data-end=\"3932\">Regulative rules<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3935\" data-end=\"3959\">Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3962\" data-end=\"3986\">Linguistic Determinism<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"3989\" data-end=\"4012\">Linguistic Relativity<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4015\" data-end=\"4023\">Clich\u00e9<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4026\" data-end=\"4034\">Jargon<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4037\" data-end=\"4044\">Slang<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4047\" data-end=\"4065\">High\/Low Context<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4068\" data-end=\"4085\">Direct\/Indirect<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4088\" data-end=\"4111\">Elaborate\/Understated<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4114\" data-end=\"4133\">Concrete\/Abstract<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4136\" data-end=\"4153\">Linear\/Circular<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4156\" data-end=\"4173\">Informal\/Formal<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4176\" data-end=\"4210\">Self-Enhancement\/Self-Effacement<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4213\" data-end=\"4226\">Translators<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4229\" data-end=\"4243\">Interpreters<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Reflection Questions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4281\" data-end=\"4420\">Is it possible for two people to communicate effectively if they do not share a common language? Should everyone learn a second language?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4424\" data-end=\"4564\">What are some cross-cultural variations in language use and communication style? How does language influence the way you perceive reality?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4568\" data-end=\"4750\">What is your own communication style? Do you consider yourself a high-context or low-context communicator? How do your cultural rules shape your views on silence and public speech?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4754\" data-end=\"4905\">What functions does language serve in human interaction? Why do people respond so strongly to language policies, such as the \u201cEnglish only\u201d movement?<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4909\" data-end=\"5102\">What knowledge and skills must translators and interpreters have to be effective? How do translation and interpretation differ, and can you provide examples that illustrate these differences?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p data-start=\"84\" data-end=\"100\"><strong data-start=\"84\" data-end=\"98\">References<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4071\" data-end=\"4148\">Anzald\u00faa, G. (1987). <em data-start=\"4092\" data-end=\"4135\">Borderlands\/La frontera: The new mestiza.<\/em> Aunt Lute.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4151\" data-end=\"4246\">Derrida, J. (1974). <em data-start=\"4171\" data-end=\"4188\">Of grammatology<\/em> (G. C. Spivak, Trans.). Johns Hopkins University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4249\" data-end=\"4353\">Foucault, M. (1977). <em data-start=\"4270\" data-end=\"4318\">Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison<\/em> (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Pantheon.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4356\" data-end=\"4471\">Gumperz, J. J., &amp; Levinson, S. C. (Eds.). (1996). <em data-start=\"4406\" data-end=\"4441\">Rethinking linguistic relativity.<\/em> Cambridge University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Linguistic Society of America. (2019, February 10). <em data-start=\"156\" data-end=\"208\">Frequently asked questions on endangered languages<\/em>. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"210\" data-end=\"243\">https:\/\/www.linguisticsociety.org<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4474\" data-end=\"4557\">Piaget, J. (1929). <em data-start=\"4493\" data-end=\"4531\">The child\u2019s conception of the world.<\/em> Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4560\" data-end=\"4621\">Pinker, S. (1994). <em data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4603\">The language instinct.<\/em> William Morrow.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"4624\" data-end=\"4724\">Sapir, E. (1921). <em data-start=\"4642\" data-end=\"4693\">Language: An introduction to the study of speech.<\/em> Harcourt, Brace and Company.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"248\" data-end=\"348\">Statista. (2019, February 10). <em data-start=\"279\" data-end=\"320\">Most spoken languages worldwide in 2018<\/em>. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"322\" data-end=\"346\">https:\/\/www.statista.com<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2312\" data-end=\"2442\">Searle, J. R. (1964). <em data-start=\"2334\" data-end=\"2368\">How to derive \u2018ought\u2019 from \u2018is\u2019.<\/em> The Philosophical Review, 73(1), 43\u201358. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"2409\" data-end=\"2440\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2183201<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"2445\" data-end=\"2580\">Sterngold, J. (1998, November 15). <em data-start=\"2480\" data-end=\"2533\">Marketing films abroad can get lost in translation.<\/em> The New York Times. <a class=\"decorated-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"2554\" data-end=\"2578\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"351\" data-end=\"470\">Taleninstituut. (2019, February 10). <em data-start=\"388\" data-end=\"437\">The world\u2019s oldest languages still spoken today<\/em>. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"439\" data-end=\"468\">https:\/\/www.taleninstituut.nl<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"5361\" data-end=\"5495\">Barnlund, D. C. (1975). <em data-start=\"5385\" data-end=\"5480\">Public and private self in Japan and the United States: Communicative styles of two cultures.<\/em> SIMUL Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"5498\" data-end=\"5614\">Hall, E. T., &amp; Hall, M. R. (1987). <em data-start=\"5533\" data-end=\"5588\">Hidden differences: Doing business with the Japanese.<\/em> Anchor Press\/Doubleday.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"5617\" data-end=\"5717\">Macrae, C. N., Stangor, C., &amp; Hewstone, M. (1999). <em data-start=\"5668\" data-end=\"5699\">Stereotypes and stereotyping.<\/em> Guilford Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"5720\" data-end=\"5792\">Nakane, C. (1970). <em data-start=\"5739\" data-end=\"5758\">Japanese society.<\/em> University of California Press.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<div class=\"chapter-4-\u2013-verbal-communication\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\"><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"450\" data-end=\"503\">Identify the role that language plays in a culture.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"450\" data-end=\"503\">Define and explain the principles of verbal communication.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"571\" data-end=\"649\">Explain why language can also be an obstacle to intercultural communication.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"653\" data-end=\"698\">Discuss variations in communication styles.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"702\" data-end=\"770\">Articulate the differences between translation and interpretation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-start=\"193\" data-end=\"681\">Introduction<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"193\" data-end=\"681\">On the first day of class, a student raises their hand and asks a question. Another student nearby sighs, rolls their eyes, and mutters, \u201cWhy would you ask that?\u201d The student who asked the question shrinks back and does not speak again for the rest of the session. After class, the two students leave with completely different interpretations of what happened. One believes they were curious and engaged. The other believes the question was a waste of time and disrespectful to the group.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"683\" data-end=\"906\">Nothing about this interaction involved insults or raised voices. It was entirely verbal. Words were chosen. Meanings were assumed. Cultural expectations about speaking, participation, and respect quietly shaped the moment. Verbal communication often feels straightforward because we use language every day. Yet the ways people speak, interrupt, question authority, offer opinions, or remain silent vary widely across cultures. In some settings, speaking up signals interest and confidence. In others, it signals arrogance or a lack of respect. A direct statement might feel honest to one person and harsh to another. A polite response might feel considerate to one listener and evasive to someone else.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1389\" data-end=\"1759\">Language also carries identity. Accents, dialects, word choice, and fluency affect how people are perceived and how much credibility they are granted. These judgments often happen quickly and without reflection. As a result, verbal communication becomes one of the most common sources of misunderstanding in intercultural interactions, even when intentions are positive.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1761\" data-end=\"2165\">This chapter explores how verbal communication works across cultures. You will examine how meaning is shaped by language structure, communication style, and cultural values. You will also learn how to listen more carefully to what people mean, not only to what they say. Developing this awareness helps you communicate more effectively in classrooms, workplaces, relationships, and everyday interactions.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"777\" data-end=\"802\">Language and Culture<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"1219\">How do you communicate? As we learned in Chapter 1, communication is the process of creating and sharing meaning with others. Former U.S. Senator and linguist S. I. Hayakawa argued that meaning resides not in words themselves, but in the people who use them. Family, community, school, and other social groups use language as a system to teach us the rules, norms, customs, traditions, and rituals of our culture.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1221\" data-end=\"1530\">In most cultures, being articulate, whether in reading, writing, or speaking, is highly valued. But effective communication is not just about producing words; it also involves listening and knowing when silence is appropriate. In short, verbal communication is shaped by its users&#8217; cultural experiences.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1532\" data-end=\"2011\">Today, roughly 6,500 languages are spoken worldwide, but about 2,000 have fewer than 1,000 speakers (Linguistic Society of America, 2019). As of 2018, the ten most widely spoken languages, accounting for nearly half of the world\u2019s population, are Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, and Punjabi (Lahnda) (Statista, 2019). Chinese and Tamil are among the oldest languages still spoken today (Taleninstituut, 2019).<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2626\">However, many languages are endangered. It is estimated that at least half of the world\u2019s languages will disappear within the next century. In North America alone, only 165 Indigenous languages are still spoken, and among these, only eight have more than 10,000 speakers. Only a handful of older individuals speak around 75 languages, and they are expected to vanish soon (Linguistic Society of America, 2019). When a language dies, a culture can die with it. The loss severs a community\u2019s connection to its past, traditions, and unique knowledge, as the group becomes absorbed into broader political and economic systems.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1027px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image26.jpeg\" alt=\"Broken tablet written in extinct languages.\" width=\"1027\" height=\"457\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.0 \u2013 Extinct Languages of Linear A &amp; Linear B<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"161\" data-end=\"187\">The Study of Language<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"189\" data-end=\"620\"><strong data-start=\"189\" data-end=\"204\">Linguistics<\/strong> is the study of language and its structure. It explores both specific languages and the general properties shared by most languages. Linguistics also examines how languages vary (such as through dialects), how they evolve, how children learn them, and how they are stored and processed in the brain. These areas of study make linguistics crucial to understanding intercultural communication.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"622\" data-end=\"666\">Linguists investigate several major areas:<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"668\" data-end=\"1925\">\n<li data-start=\"668\" data-end=\"872\">\n<p data-start=\"670\" data-end=\"872\"><strong data-start=\"670\" data-end=\"683\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1009\">Phonetics<\/a><\/strong> \u2013 the study of how speech sounds are produced, heard, and analyzed acoustically.<br data-start=\"764\" data-end=\"767\" \/><em data-start=\"769\" data-end=\"854\">Example: noticing the difference between how the \u201cp\u201d sound is produced in the words<\/em> pin <em data-start=\"859\" data-end=\"864\">and<\/em> spin.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"874\" data-end=\"1057\">\n<p data-start=\"876\" data-end=\"1057\"><strong data-start=\"876\" data-end=\"889\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1007\">Phonology<\/a><\/strong> \u2013 the study of sound patterns within a language.<br data-start=\"938\" data-end=\"941\" \/><em data-start=\"943\" data-end=\"1055\">Example: In English, words cannot begin with the sound combination \u201cng,\u201d but in some Asian languages, they can.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1059\" data-end=\"1261\">\n<p data-start=\"1061\" data-end=\"1261\"><strong data-start=\"1061\" data-end=\"1075\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1054\">Morphology<\/a><\/strong> \u2013 the study of how words are formed and structured.<br data-start=\"1127\" data-end=\"1130\" \/><em data-start=\"1132\" data-end=\"1259\">Example: understanding that the word \u201cunhappiness\u201d is made up of three parts: un- (prefix), happy (root), and -ness (suffix).<\/em><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1263\" data-end=\"1490\">\n<p data-start=\"1265\" data-end=\"1490\"><strong data-start=\"1265\" data-end=\"1275\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_889\">Syntax<\/a><\/strong> \u2013 the rules and patterns governing sentence structure.<br data-start=\"1330\" data-end=\"1333\" \/><em data-start=\"1335\" data-end=\"1488\">Example: English typically follows a Subject-Verb-Object pattern (\u201cShe ate lunch\u201d), while Japanese often follows Subject-Object-Verb (\u201cShe lunch ate\u201d).<\/em><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1492\" data-end=\"1705\">\n<p data-start=\"1494\" data-end=\"1705\"><strong data-start=\"1494\" data-end=\"1507\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_933\">Semantics<\/a><\/strong> \u2013 the study of meaning in language.<br data-start=\"1543\" data-end=\"1546\" \/><em data-start=\"1548\" data-end=\"1602\">Example: the difference in meaning between the words<\/em> house <em data-start=\"1609\" data-end=\"1614\">and<\/em> home, <em data-start=\"1621\" data-end=\"1703\">which may refer to the same building but carry different emotional connotations.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1707\" data-end=\"1925\">\n<p data-start=\"1709\" data-end=\"1925\"><strong data-start=\"1709\" data-end=\"1723\">Pragmatics<\/strong> \u2013 the study of how language functions in context.<br data-start=\"1773\" data-end=\"1776\" \/><i>Example: when someone says, \u201cIt\u2019s cold in here,\u201d they may not just be making an observation; they might be politely asking you to close a window.<\/i><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"1927\" data-end=\"2316\">Studying linguistics offers insight into one of the most fundamental aspects of being human, the ability to communicate effectively. It helps us understand not only how language works but also how it changes over time and adapts across cultures. Because language is central to all human interaction, knowledge of linguistics is foundational to understanding culture and intercultural communication.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"165\" data-end=\"204\">Principles of Verbal Communication<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"206\" data-end=\"521\">Although linguistics focuses on the structure of language, communication scholars are equally interested in how language functions in everyday interactions. Within intercultural communication, verbal communication is more than just words on a page or sounds in the air; it is a living exchange of cultural meaning.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"523\" data-end=\"819\">Language both reflects and shapes the cultures that use it. Through words, we carry traditions, express values, negotiate relationships, and sometimes even create misunderstandings. As a result, communication scholars identify several core principles that apply to all forms of verbal communication.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"821\" data-end=\"1108\">In the following section, we will examine these principles in more detail and consider how they influence everyday communication across cultural boundaries. Each principle highlights an essential way in which words both enable and complicate the process of sharing meaning with others.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 760px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image27.jpeg\" alt=\"Map depicting how people refer to soda throughout the United States.\" width=\"760\" height=\"400\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.1 \u2013 Language is Arbitrary. Soda, Pop, and Coke in geotagged tweets<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"143\" data-end=\"182\">Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"184\" data-end=\"483\">Words, by themselves, have no inherent meaning. Humans assign meanings to words, and these meanings evolve over time and across cultures. For example, we negotiate the meaning of the word\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><em>&#8220;home,<\/em>&#8220;<em>\u00a0<\/em>sometimes through images, sometimes through dialogue, to share a sense of it <\/span>with others.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"485\" data-end=\"1153\">Words carry two types of meaning: <strong data-start=\"519\" data-end=\"533\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1297\">denotative<\/a><\/strong> and <strong data-start=\"538\" data-end=\"553\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1357\">connotative<\/a><\/strong>. The denotative meaning is the direct, dictionary definition of a word. The connotative meaning, on the other hand, resides in users&#8217; minds and reflects emotional or cultural associations. Connotations can be positive or negative, individual or collective, but rarely universal. For instance, in the United States, describing someone as having <em data-start=\"903\" data-end=\"925\">rugged individualism<\/em> suggests strength and independence, both of which are often valued. In cultures with a collectivistic orientation, however, the exact phrase might carry a more negative connotation, emphasizing selfishness or separation from the group.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1155\" data-end=\"1790\">Translation across languages demonstrates just how slippery meanings can be. For example, the 1998 film <em data-start=\"1259\" data-end=\"1289\">There\u2019s Something About Mary<\/em> proved difficult to translate for foreign audiences. In Poland, the title\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">was changed\u00a0<em>to &#8220;For the Love of a Blonde,<\/em>&#8220;<\/span>\u00a0aligning with local humor about blondes. In France, it was translated as\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><em>&#8220;Mary at All Costs,<\/em>&#8221; while in Thailand, the title was changed to <em>&#8220;My True Love Will Stand All Outrageous Events,<\/em>&#8220;<\/span> dropping the reference to Mary altogether (Sterngold, 1998). Even when audiences share a common language, capturing meaning can be challenging\u2014across languages and cultures, the difficulty multiplies.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"1797\" data-end=\"1820\">Language Has Rules<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1822\" data-end=\"2269\">All languages operate by rules. <strong data-start=\"1854\" data-end=\"1876\">Constitutive rules<\/strong> determine what words mean and which words represent which objects (Searle, 1964). <strong data-start=\"1959\" data-end=\"1979\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_966\">Regulative rules<\/a><\/strong> govern how we arrange words into sentences and how we use them in conversation. Without knowledge of these rules, clear communication is nearly impossible. Misunderstanding rules leads not only to confusion but also to frustration when people cannot make sense of one another\u2019s messages.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 524px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image28.png\" alt=\"Regulative rules.\" width=\"524\" height=\"349\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.2 \u2013 Regulative Rules. Present einen<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"224\" data-end=\"245\">Language Evolves<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"247\" data-end=\"679\">Although many people view language as fixed, language is constantly changing. As time and technology advance, new words are created, old words are repurposed, and some words fall out of use. For instance, recent additions to American English include <em data-start=\"491\" data-end=\"497\">blog<\/em>, <em data-start=\"499\" data-end=\"508\">sexting<\/em>, and <em data-start=\"514\" data-end=\"523\">selfie.<\/em> Repurposed words include <em data-start=\"549\" data-end=\"556\">tweet<\/em> and <em data-start=\"561\" data-end=\"566\">app<\/em> (short for application), while terms such as <em data-start=\"612\" data-end=\"622\">affright<\/em>, <em data-start=\"624\" data-end=\"636\">cannonade,<\/em> and <em data-start=\"641\" data-end=\"647\">fain<\/em> have mainly become obsolete.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"681\" data-end=\"982\">Languages also borrow from one another.\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">Place names in the United States, such as\u00a0<em>Wisconsin,<\/em>\u00a0<em>Oregon,<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Wyoming,<\/em> come from Native American languages.<\/span>\u00a0Words like <em data-start=\"847\" data-end=\"856\">typhoon<\/em> (from Mandarin Chinese) and <em data-start=\"885\" data-end=\"896\">influenza<\/em> (from Italian) also illustrate how languages expand through the adoption of outside influences.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"989\" data-end=\"1022\">Language Shapes Our Thoughts<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1024\" data-end=\"1492\">Language does more than convey ideas; it shapes how we think about the world and our relationships. Edward Sapir\u2019s early 20th-century work on Native American languages suggested that language has a powerful influence on perception and interaction (Gumperz &amp; Levinson, 1996). Building on Sapir\u2019s ideas, Benjamin Lee Whorf developed what became known as the <strong data-start=\"1374\" data-end=\"1400\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_949\">Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis<\/a><\/strong>, or <strong data-start=\"1405\" data-end=\"1431\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1107\">linguistic determinism<\/a>, <\/strong>the claim that language defines the boundaries of thought.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1494\" data-end=\"1887\">Later scholars such as Derrida (1974), Foucault (1977), and Anzald\u00faa (1987) extended this line of thinking. Anzald\u00faa (1987) famously declared, <em data-start=\"1637\" data-end=\"1657\">\u201cI am my language\u201d<\/em> (p. 59), underscoring the profound connection between language and identity. However, other scholars (e.g., Piaget, 1929; Pinker, 1994) critiqued strict linguistic determinism, noting that human thought often exceeds linguistic boundaries.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"2128\">Most contemporary scholars support the idea of <strong data-start=\"1936\" data-end=\"1961\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1105\">linguistic relativity<\/a><\/strong>, which recognizes that while language may not completely determine thought, it strongly influences how members of different cultures perceive and interpret reality.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Exercise<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div class=\"chapter-4-\u2013-verbal-communication\">\n<p data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"1355\">Watch Lera Boroditsky\u2019s TED Talk <em data-start=\"865\" data-end=\"903\">How Language Shapes the Way We Think.<\/em> She illustrates linguistic relativity with fascinating cross-cultural examples, ranging from languages that use cardinal directions rather than left and right to how grammar shapes people&#8217;s perceptions of time and agency. This connects directly to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and reminds us that language isn\u2019t just about words; it actively shapes how we think, remember, and interact with the world.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1362\" data-end=\"1564\">While watching, ask yourself: what examples from your own life or culture illustrate how language influences thought? Can you think of times when language made you notice, or overlook, something meaningful?<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"How Language Shapes the Way We Think | Lera Boroditsky | TED\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/RKK7wGAYP6k?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>If the above activity does not work, here is a link to the original video: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">How language shapes the way we think | Lera Boroditsky | TED<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"1355\">Cultural Variations in Language<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p data-start=\"2173\" data-end=\"2665\">For intercultural communication to succeed, cultural context must be taken into account. Words do not carry meaning on their own\u2014they are shaped by cultural rules that determine when and how speech acts (greetings, apologies, requests, etc.) are performed. For example, a grammatically correct sentence may still be offensive if used in the wrong cultural context. These differences underscore the importance of understanding cultural values and expectations when using language across cultures.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2173\" data-end=\"2665\">Language choices do more than convey information; they signal identity, power, and belonging. These themes will reappear in later chapters on barriers, conflict, and workplace communication, where verbal misunderstandings can have lasting consequences.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"2672\" data-end=\"2724\">Attitudes Toward Speaking, Silence, and Writing<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"2726\" data-end=\"3082\">Attitudes toward language use vary widely across cultures. In the United States, Canada, and much of Western Europe, speaking is highly valued. Articulateness is often equated with intelligence, and silence may be interpreted negatively, as indifference, confusion, or even hostility. In these contexts, people usually rush to fill silences in conversation.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3084\" data-end=\"3579\">By contrast, in many Asian cultures, silence is regarded as a sign of respect and thoughtfulness. Pausing before responding shows that a question is being considered carefully. In conflicts, silence may be preferred to avoid offense and preserve harmony, or to \u201csave face.\u201d Similarly, in hierarchical cultures with high power distance, junior members may remain silent until invited to speak. In collectivistic cultures, silence can signal group loyalty when an individual\u2019s opinion differs from the majority.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3581\" data-end=\"3741\">Silence is also valued in many African and Native American traditions, where it can represent comfort, presence, or reflection rather than absence of thought.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3743\" data-end=\"4027\">Cultural differences also extend to writing. In the United States, written agreements (e.g., contracts) often carry more weight than spoken promises. In other cultures, however, verbal agreements or even gestures, such as handshakes, may hold greater significance than written documents.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 443px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image29.jpeg\" alt=\"Sign on white board that reads Next gathering: Drop-in Silence Friday 5:30-7:00 pm. Arrive and leave when you like...Bring a friend, spread the word. ALL WELCOME !!\" width=\"443\" height=\"332\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.3 \u2013 Cultural view of silence<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"255\" data-end=\"287\">Language Can Be an Obstacle<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"289\" data-end=\"478\">Language can both connect and divide us. While it enables communication, it can also create misunderstandings. Clich\u00e9s, jargon, and slang often present barriers in intercultural contexts.<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"480\" data-end=\"1709\">\n<li data-start=\"480\" data-end=\"850\">\n<p data-start=\"482\" data-end=\"850\"><strong data-start=\"482\" data-end=\"493\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1395\">Clich\u00e9s<\/a><\/strong> are overused phrases that lose impact and originality. They are often dismissed as lazy communication because listeners tend to gloss over them. In intercultural settings, clich\u00e9s can reinforce stereotypes. For example, saying something should be \u201cavoided like the plague\u201d illustrates how easily clich\u00e9s can lose clarity or carry unintended connotations.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"852\" data-end=\"1314\">\n<p data-start=\"854\" data-end=\"1314\"><strong data-start=\"854\" data-end=\"864\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1118\">Jargon<\/a><\/strong> is occupation- or group-specific language designed for efficiency within specialized fields. Medical professionals, IT specialists, and gamers often rely on jargon. Examples include <em data-start=\"1047\" data-end=\"1058\">contusion<\/em> (bruise), <em data-start=\"1069\" data-end=\"1078\">sutures<\/em> (stitches), <em data-start=\"1091\" data-end=\"1098\">cache<\/em> (storage area), <em data-start=\"1115\" data-end=\"1120\">AFK<\/em> (away from keyboard), and <em data-start=\"1147\" data-end=\"1162\">bullet sponge<\/em> (a video game term). For outsiders, jargon can be confusing or misleading, so in intercultural communication, it\u2019s best to avoid it and use more common terms.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1316\" data-end=\"1709\">\n<p data-start=\"1318\" data-end=\"1709\"><strong data-start=\"1318\" data-end=\"1327\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_918\">Slang<\/a><\/strong> involves informal or newly invented words often used within specific groups. Unlike jargon, slang is not tied to a profession and tends to evolve quickly. Slang may also function as a marker of in-groups versus out-groups. A typical example in U.S. youth culture <span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">is the use of words like\u00a0<em>&#8220;lit&#8221;<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>&#8220;salty.<\/em>&#8220;<\/span>\u00a0Dictionaries such as <em data-start=\"1649\" data-end=\"1667\">Urban Dictionary<\/em> often track the emergence of new slang.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1755\">Variations in Communication Styles<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1757\" data-end=\"2118\">The way people use language is shaped by cultural values and assumptions about human relationships. Cultural rules regarding when and how speech acts (e.g., greetings, apologies, expressions of gratitude) are performed can vary significantly across societies. Understanding these differences in communication styles is essential for effective intercultural interaction.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"2120\" data-end=\"2154\">High- and Low-Context Styles<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"2156\" data-end=\"2252\">Hall and Hall (1987) distinguished between <strong data-start=\"2199\" data-end=\"2215\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1183\">high-context<\/a><\/strong> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1093\"><strong data-start=\"2220\" data-end=\"2235\">low-context<\/strong> <\/a>communication:<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"2254\" data-end=\"2837\">\n<li data-start=\"2254\" data-end=\"2540\">\n<p data-start=\"2256\" data-end=\"2540\"><strong data-start=\"2256\" data-end=\"2281\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1181\">High-context cultures<\/a><\/strong> (e.g., China, Japan, South Korea) rely heavily on shared knowledge and context. Much meaning is implied rather than explicitly stated. Silence, nonverbal cues, and indirect hints often carry as much weight as words. These cultures are usually collectivistic.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2541\" data-end=\"2837\">\n<p data-start=\"2543\" data-end=\"2837\"><strong data-start=\"2543\" data-end=\"2567\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1091\">Low-context cultures<\/a><\/strong> (e.g., the United States, Germany, Switzerland) rely on explicit verbal messages. Meaning lies in the words themselves, with less dependence on context. Arguments are expected to be direct, detailed, and logically structured. These cultures are often individualistic.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 data-start=\"2839\" data-end=\"2871\">Direct and Indirect Styles<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"2873\" data-end=\"2940\">Directness refers to how openly speakers reveal their intentions:<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"2942\" data-end=\"3375\">\n<li data-start=\"2942\" data-end=\"3115\">\n<p data-start=\"2944\" data-end=\"3115\"><strong data-start=\"2944\" data-end=\"2961\">Direct styles<\/strong> express needs, wants, and opinions clearly and publicly. U.S. business communication, for example, favors clarity and brevity (\u201cWhat can I do for you?\u201d).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3116\" data-end=\"3375\">\n<p data-start=\"3118\" data-end=\"3375\"><strong data-start=\"3118\" data-end=\"3137\">Indirect styles<\/strong> emphasize relationships and harmony over bluntness. In many Latin American contexts, conversations often begin with small talk before moving on to business matters. Indirectness allows speakers to \u201csave face\u201d and maintain positive relationships.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 data-start=\"3377\" data-end=\"3415\">Elaborate and Understated Styles<\/h3>\n<ul data-start=\"3417\" data-end=\"3793\">\n<li data-start=\"3417\" data-end=\"3608\">\n<p data-start=\"3419\" data-end=\"3608\"><strong data-start=\"3419\" data-end=\"3439\">Elaborate styles<\/strong> use expressive, dramatic, or exaggerated language. Found in cultures such as France, Latin America, and the Arab world, elaboration signals involvement and sincerity.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3609\" data-end=\"3793\">\n<p data-start=\"3611\" data-end=\"3793\"><strong data-start=\"3611\" data-end=\"3633\">Understated styles<\/strong> favor simplicity, restraint, and silence. In Japan, for example, understatement reflects a preference for modesty and harmony (Nakane, 1970; Barnlund, 1975).<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 data-start=\"3795\" data-end=\"3827\">Other Communication Styles<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"3829\" data-end=\"3879\">Scholars have also identified additional styles:<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"3881\" data-end=\"4598\">\n<li data-start=\"3881\" data-end=\"4030\">\n<p data-start=\"3883\" data-end=\"4030\"><strong data-start=\"3883\" data-end=\"3908\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1366\">Concrete<\/a> vs. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1455\">abstract<\/a><\/strong>: Concrete styles emphasize specific examples and stories, while abstract styles stress general principles and theories.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4031\" data-end=\"4237\">\n<p data-start=\"4033\" data-end=\"4237\"><strong data-start=\"4033\" data-end=\"4056\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1112\">Linear<\/a> vs. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1398\">circular<\/a><\/strong>: Linear styles follow a straightforward, logical progression toward a conclusion. Circular styles provide context and supporting ideas, sometimes leaving the main point implicit.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4238\" data-end=\"4413\">\n<p data-start=\"4240\" data-end=\"4413\"><strong data-start=\"4240\" data-end=\"4263\">Formal vs. informal<\/strong>: Formal styles reflect hierarchical relationships and high power distance, while informal styles reflect egalitarian values and low power distance.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4414\" data-end=\"4598\">\n<p data-start=\"4416\" data-end=\"4598\"><strong data-start=\"4416\" data-end=\"4456\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_939\">Self-enhancement<\/a> vs. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_941\">self-effacement<\/a><\/strong>: Self-enhancement emphasizes personal accomplishments and assertiveness, while self-effacement emphasizes humility, modesty, and restraint.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 data-start=\"4605\" data-end=\"4624\">Code-Switching<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"4626\" data-end=\"4800\">No culture relies on only one communication style in every situation. Individuals often shift between styles depending on the context, a phenomenon known as <strong data-start=\"4779\" data-end=\"4798\">code-switching.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4802\" data-end=\"4979\">Code-switching involves adjusting language, tone, or style to align with conversational partners or social settings. This can happen consciously or unconsciously. For example:<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"4981\" data-end=\"5177\">\n<li data-start=\"4981\" data-end=\"5042\">\n<p data-start=\"4983\" data-end=\"5042\">Adopting a southern accent while visiting the U.S. South.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"5043\" data-end=\"5099\">\n<p data-start=\"5045\" data-end=\"5099\">Using formal speech with parents to ask for a favor.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"5100\" data-end=\"5177\">\n<p data-start=\"5102\" data-end=\"5177\">Switching between languages to preserve meaning or signal group identity.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"5179\" data-end=\"5317\">Code-switching serves many purposes, including expressing solidarity, showing respect, adapting to context, or bridging linguistic gaps.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 284px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2300interculturalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/288\/2025\/08\/image30.jpeg\" alt=\"Sign on the side of a bus stop that read &quot;HELLO PARENTS! We would like to inform that happy meal can bestallas enlight tallriksmodellen. PS. If your kids ask about this affisch, tell them it's about bolaneranta or something.\" width=\"284\" height=\"379\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.4 \u2013 Codeswitching<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 data-start=\"210\" data-end=\"255\">Adapting as Intercultural Communicators<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"257\" data-end=\"839\">For intercultural communicators, adapting to others\u2019 preferences is part of effective interaction (Bianconi, 2002). You notice how quickly or slowly people speak, how long they take to respond, and whether their style is direct or indirect. You may also need to practice cultural norms for nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact, touch, and appropriate displays of respect within power relationships. Adaptation, however, requires care. While a sincere effort to learn is often appreciated, imitation can come across as mocking or disrespectful if it feels insincere.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"846\" data-end=\"882\">Translation and Interpretation<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"884\" data-end=\"1081\">Because no one can learn every language, translation and interpretation help bridge communication across linguistic boundaries. While the two practices are closely related, they are distinct.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1083\" data-end=\"1484\"><strong data-start=\"1083\" data-end=\"1098\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_871\">Translation<\/a><\/strong> involves producing a written text in one language that conveys the meaning of a written text in another. Translators typically read the source material, interpret its meaning, and then craft a version in the target language that preserves the original&#8217;s style, tone, and accuracy. They are often subject-matter experts and skilled linguists with strong writing skills.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1486\" data-end=\"2072\"><strong data-start=\"1486\" data-end=\"1504\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_61_1125\">Interpretation<\/a><\/strong> is the oral rendering of spoken language. It is not a word-for-word substitution but a process of conveying meaning in ways that are clear and culturally appropriate to the target audience. Interpreters rephrase idioms, metaphors, and culturally specific expressions so that listeners can understand the original speaker&#8217;s intent. Depending on the situation, interpretation may coincide with the speaker&#8217;s speech (simultaneously) or occur consecutively (during pauses). Interpreters must have linguistic expertise, cultural knowledge, and excellent memory skills.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2074\" data-end=\"2305\">Not all bilingual individuals are effective translators or interpreters. These roles require not just fluency in two languages, but also cultural fluency and the ability to manage complex interpersonal and intercultural dynamics.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"2312\" data-end=\"2333\">Language Policy<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"2335\" data-end=\"2907\">Language is also managed at a societal level through policy. Language policies often reflect broader cultural and political debates about identity, belonging, and power. For example, while the United States has no official legal language, English serves as the <em data-start=\"2596\" data-end=\"2606\">de facto<\/em> national language, and 27 states have passed \u201cOfficial English\u201d laws (USConstitution.net, 2019). Former U.S. Senator S. I. Hayakawa, mentioned at the start of this chapter, repeatedly introduced legislation to designate English as the official language of the United States, though it never passed.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2909\" data-end=\"3298\">Other nations take a different approach. The European Union recognizes 23 official languages and more than 60 indigenous languages. Canada has two official languages, English and French, and recognizes 70 indigenous languages from 12 language families. China recognizes Mandarin (Putonghua) as its official language, alongside seven additional language families and more than 300 dialects.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3300\" data-end=\"3433\">These examples illustrate how language policies are intertwined with culture, class, ethnicity, politics, and economics.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Case Check: &#8220;Just Be Direct&#8221;<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p data-start=\"2153\" data-end=\"2424\">During a class discussion, one student speaks bluntly and openly challenges ideas. Another student rarely speaks and later emails the instructor with concerns. The first student believes open debate is respectful. The second believes public disagreement is uncomfortable.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2426\" data-end=\"2450\"><strong data-start=\"2426\" data-end=\"2450\">Reflection Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"2451\" data-end=\"2619\">\n<li data-start=\"2451\" data-end=\"2515\">\n<p data-start=\"2453\" data-end=\"2515\">How do different norms around directness affect participation?<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2516\" data-end=\"2569\">\n<p data-start=\"2518\" data-end=\"2569\">How might culture influence perceptions of respect?<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2570\" data-end=\"2619\">\n<p data-start=\"2572\" data-end=\"2619\">What verbal strategies could support inclusion?<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-start=\"3440\" data-end=\"3456\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"3458\" data-end=\"3802\">Philosopher Bertrand Russell (1938) observed that all language carries power, and all power is rooted in language. Shared language not only enables understanding but also fosters a sense of belonging. Language shapes culture, and culture shapes language\u2014together they influence how people connect, identify, and communicate across boundaries.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Key Terms<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"3841\">Linguistics<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3844\" data-end=\"3864\">Denotative meaning<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3867\" data-end=\"3888\">Connotative meaning<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3891\" data-end=\"3911\">Constitutive rules<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3914\" data-end=\"3932\">Regulative rules<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3935\" data-end=\"3959\">Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3962\" data-end=\"3986\">Linguistic Determinism<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3989\" data-end=\"4012\">Linguistic Relativity<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4015\" data-end=\"4023\">Clich\u00e9<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4026\" data-end=\"4034\">Jargon<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4037\" data-end=\"4044\">Slang<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4047\" data-end=\"4065\">High\/Low Context<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4068\" data-end=\"4085\">Direct\/Indirect<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4088\" data-end=\"4111\">Elaborate\/Understated<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4114\" data-end=\"4133\">Concrete\/Abstract<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4136\" data-end=\"4153\">Linear\/Circular<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4156\" data-end=\"4173\">Informal\/Formal<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4176\" data-end=\"4210\">Self-Enhancement\/Self-Effacement<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4213\" data-end=\"4226\">Translators<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4229\" data-end=\"4243\">Interpreters<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Reflection Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li data-start=\"4281\" data-end=\"4420\">Is it possible for two people to communicate effectively if they do not share a common language? Should everyone learn a second language?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4424\" data-end=\"4564\">What are some cross-cultural variations in language use and communication style? How does language influence the way you perceive reality?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4568\" data-end=\"4750\">What is your own communication style? Do you consider yourself a high-context or low-context communicator? How do your cultural rules shape your views on silence and public speech?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4754\" data-end=\"4905\">What functions does language serve in human interaction? Why do people respond so strongly to language policies, such as the \u201cEnglish only\u201d movement?<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4909\" data-end=\"5102\">What knowledge and skills must translators and interpreters have to be effective? How do translation and interpretation differ, and can you provide examples that illustrate these differences?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p data-start=\"84\" data-end=\"100\"><strong data-start=\"84\" data-end=\"98\">References<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"4071\" data-end=\"4148\">Anzald\u00faa, G. (1987). <em data-start=\"4092\" data-end=\"4135\">Borderlands\/La frontera: The new mestiza.<\/em> Aunt Lute.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4151\" data-end=\"4246\">Derrida, J. (1974). <em data-start=\"4171\" data-end=\"4188\">Of grammatology<\/em> (G. C. Spivak, Trans.). Johns Hopkins University Press.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4249\" data-end=\"4353\">Foucault, M. (1977). <em data-start=\"4270\" data-end=\"4318\">Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison<\/em> (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Pantheon.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4356\" data-end=\"4471\">Gumperz, J. J., &amp; Levinson, S. C. (Eds.). (1996). <em data-start=\"4406\" data-end=\"4441\">Rethinking linguistic relativity.<\/em> Cambridge University Press.<\/li>\n<li>Linguistic Society of America. (2019, February 10). <em data-start=\"156\" data-end=\"208\">Frequently asked questions on endangered languages<\/em>. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"210\" data-end=\"243\">https:\/\/www.linguisticsociety.org<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4474\" data-end=\"4557\">Piaget, J. (1929). <em data-start=\"4493\" data-end=\"4531\">The child\u2019s conception of the world.<\/em> Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4560\" data-end=\"4621\">Pinker, S. (1994). <em data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4603\">The language instinct.<\/em> William Morrow.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4624\" data-end=\"4724\">Sapir, E. (1921). <em data-start=\"4642\" data-end=\"4693\">Language: An introduction to the study of speech.<\/em> Harcourt, Brace and Company.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"248\" data-end=\"348\">Statista. (2019, February 10). <em data-start=\"279\" data-end=\"320\">Most spoken languages worldwide in 2018<\/em>. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"322\" data-end=\"346\">https:\/\/www.statista.com<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2312\" data-end=\"2442\">Searle, J. R. (1964). <em data-start=\"2334\" data-end=\"2368\">How to derive \u2018ought\u2019 from \u2018is\u2019.<\/em> The Philosophical Review, 73(1), 43\u201358. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"2409\" data-end=\"2440\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2183201<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2445\" data-end=\"2580\">Sterngold, J. (1998, November 15). <em data-start=\"2480\" data-end=\"2533\">Marketing films abroad can get lost in translation.<\/em> The New York Times. <a class=\"decorated-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"2554\" data-end=\"2578\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"351\" data-end=\"470\">Taleninstituut. (2019, February 10). <em data-start=\"388\" data-end=\"437\">The world\u2019s oldest languages still spoken today<\/em>. <a class=\"decorated-link cursor-pointer\" target=\"_new\" rel=\"noopener\" data-start=\"439\" data-end=\"468\">https:\/\/www.taleninstituut.nl<\/a><\/li>\n<li data-start=\"5361\" data-end=\"5495\">Barnlund, D. C. (1975). <em data-start=\"5385\" data-end=\"5480\">Public and private self in Japan and the United States: Communicative styles of two cultures.<\/em> SIMUL Press.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"5498\" data-end=\"5614\">Hall, E. T., &amp; Hall, M. R. (1987). <em data-start=\"5533\" data-end=\"5588\">Hidden differences: Doing business with the Japanese.<\/em> Anchor Press\/Doubleday.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"5617\" data-end=\"5717\">Macrae, C. N., Stangor, C., &amp; Hewstone, M. (1999). <em data-start=\"5668\" data-end=\"5699\">Stereotypes and stereotyping.<\/em> Guilford Press.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"5720\" data-end=\"5792\">Nakane, C. (1970). <em data-start=\"5739\" data-end=\"5758\">Japanese society.<\/em> University of California Press.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_61_1009\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1009\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The study of the production, acoustics, and hearing of speech sounds.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1007\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1007\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The patterning of sounds.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1054\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1054\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The patterning of words.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_889\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_889\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The structure of sentences.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_933\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_933\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Meaning<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1297\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1297\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The meaning of words is often found in the dictionary.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1357\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1357\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Meaning is often not found in the dictionary but in users' minds.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_966\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_966\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Govern how we arrange words into sentences and how we exchange words in verbal conversations.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_949\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_949\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The structure of a language determines a native speaker\u2019s perception and categorization of experience.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1107\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1107\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1105\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1105\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Language is ever-changing and growing, and in many ways determines reality.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1395\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1395\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A word or phrase that has lost impact through overuse.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1118\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1118\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An occupation-specific language used by people in a particular profession.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_918\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_918\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The use of existing or newly invented words in particular groups.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1183\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1183\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Cultures in which people assume that others within their culture will share their viewpoints and thus understand situations or nonverbals in much the same way.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1093\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1093\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Cultures in which people do NOT presume that others share their beliefs, values, and behaviors, so they tend to be more verbally informative and direct in their communication.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1181\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1181\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Often belongs to social or economic elites and rarely crosses into the realm of the masses.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1091\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1091\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Being commercially successful, self-sustaining, and self-perpetuating.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1366\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1366\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Stresses that issues are best understood through stories, metaphors, allegories, and examples with an emphasis on the specific rather than the general.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1455\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1455\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Stresses that issues are best understood through theories, principles, and data, with emphasis on the general rather than the specific.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1112\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1112\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Resembling a straight line.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1398\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1398\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Communication moves in a circular pattern, developing context around the main point, which is often left unstated.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_939\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_939\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Communication style that focuses on promoting one\u2019s own accomplishments and abilities.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_941\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_941\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Style that focuses on the importance of humbling oneself through verbal restraint, hesitation, modesty, and self-depreciation<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_871\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_871\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Involves the process of producing a written text that refers to something written in another language.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_61_1125\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_61_1125\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The process of orally expressing what is said or written in another language.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close 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