{"id":491,"date":"2025-05-13T17:35:23","date_gmt":"2025-05-13T17:35:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=491"},"modified":"2025-07-13T20:54:33","modified_gmt":"2025-07-13T20:54:33","slug":"standards-for-language-in-public-speaking","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/chapter\/standards-for-language-in-public-speaking\/","title":{"raw":"Standards for Language in Public Speaking","rendered":"Standards for Language in Public Speaking"},"content":{"raw":"Clear language is powerful language. Clarity is the first concern of a public speaker when it comes to choosing how to phrase the ideas of his or her speech. If you are not clear, specific, precise, detailed, and sensory with your language, you won\u2019t have to worry about being emotional or persuasive, because you won\u2019t be understood. There are many aspects of clarity in language, listed below.\r\n<h2>Achieving Clarity<\/h2>\r\nThe first aspect of clarity is concreteness. We usually think of concreteness as the opposite of abstraction. Language that evokes many different visual images in the minds of your audience is <strong>abstract language<\/strong>. Unfortunately, when abstract language is used, the images evoked might not be the ones you really want to evoke. A word such as \u201cart\u201d is very abstract; it brings up a range of mental pictures or associations: dance, theatre, painting, drama, a child\u2019s drawing on a refrigerator, sculpture, music, etc. When asked to identify what an abstract term like \u201cart\u201d means, twenty people will have twenty different ideas.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Abstract language<\/strong>\r\n\r\nlanguage that evokes many different visual images in the minds of your audience\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_492\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"288\"]<img class=\"wp-image-492 \" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-470x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Ladder of Abstraction\u00a0\" width=\"288\" height=\"628\" \/> Figure 10.1[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">In order to show how language should be more specific, the \u201cladder of abstraction\u201d (Hayakawa, 1939) was developed. The ladder of abstraction in Figure 10.1 helps us see how our language can range from abstract (general and sometimes vague) to very precise and specific (such as an actual person that everyone in your audience will know).<\/span>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Ladder of Abstraction<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nExamine this ladder of abstraction:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Bernini's Sculpture of David<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Baroque Sculpture<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Marble Sculpture<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Three-Dimensional Art<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Visual Art<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Art<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYou probably understood the ladder until it came to the word \u201cBaroque.\u201d At Bernini\u2019s, <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">you might get confused if you do not know much about art history. If the top level said \u201cBernini\u2019s David,\u201d a specific sculpture, that would be confusing to some because while almost everyone is familiar with Michelangelo\u2019s <\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">David<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">, Bernini\u2019s version is very different. It\u2019s life-sized, moving, and clothed. Bernini\u2019s is as much a symbol of the Baroque Age as Michelangelo\u2019s is of the Renaissance. But unless you\u2019ve taken an art history course, the reference, though very specific, is meaningless to you, and even worse, it might strike you as showing off. In fact, to make my point, here they are in Figure 10.2. A picture is worth a thousand words, right?<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_493\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"288\"]<img class=\"wp-image-493\" style=\"color: #373d3f; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; word-spacing: normal;\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David-300x167.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance David (Michelangelo vs. Bernini's David)\" width=\"288\" height=\"161\" \/> Figure 10.2[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nRelated to the issue of specific vs. abstract is the use of the right word. Mark Twain said, \u201cThe difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between lightning and a lightning bug.\u201d For example, the words \u201cprosecute\u201d and \u201cpersecute\u201d are commonly confused, but not interchangeable. Two others are peremptory\/pre-emptive and prerequisites\/perquisites. Can you think of other such word pair confusion?\r\n\r\nIn the attempt to be clear, which is your first concern, you will also want to be simple and familiar in your language. Familiarity is a factor of attention (Chapter 7); familiar language draws in the audience. Simple does not mean simplistic, but the avoidance of multi-syllable words. If a speaker said, \u201cA collection of pre-adolescents fabricated an obese personification comprised of compressed mounds of minute aquatic crystals,\u201d you might recognize it as \u201cSome children made a snowman,\u201d but maybe not. The language is not simple or familiar and therefore does not communicate well, although the words are correct and do mean the same thing, technically.\r\n\r\nAlong with language needing to be specific and correct, language can use appropriate similes and metaphors to become clearer. <strong>Literal language <\/strong>does not use comparisons like similes and metaphors; <strong>figurative language <\/strong>uses comparisons with objects, animals, activities, roles, or historical or literary figures. Literal says, \u201cThe truck is fast.\u201d Figurative says \u201cThe truck is as fast as\u2026\u201c or \u201cThe truck runs like\u2026\u201d or \u201cHe drives that truck like Kyle Busch at Daytona.\u201d <strong>Similes <\/strong>use some form of \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d in the comparisons. <strong>Metaphors <\/strong>are direct comparisons, such as \u201cHe is Kyle Busch at Daytona when he gets behind the wheel of that truck.\u201d Here are some more examples of metaphors:\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Love is a battlefield.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Upon hearing the charges, the accused clammed up and refused to speak without a lawyer.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Every year a new crop of activists is born.<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Literal language<\/strong>\r\n\r\nlanguage that does not use comparisons like similes and metaphors\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Figurative language<\/strong>\r\n\r\nlanguage that uses metaphors and similes to compare things that may not be literally alike\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Similes<\/strong>\r\n\r\na figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind (specifically using the terms \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d), used to make a description more emphatic or vivid\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Metaphors<\/strong>\r\n\r\na figure of speech that identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nFor rhetorical purposes, metaphors are considered stronger, but both can help you achieve clearer language, if chosen wisely. To think about how metaphor is stronger than simile, think of the difference \u201cLove is a battlefield\u201d and \u201cLove is <em>like <\/em>a battlefield.\u201d Speakers are encouraged to pick <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">their metaphors and not overuse them. Also, avoid mixed metaphors, as in this example: \u201cThat\u2019s awfully thin gruel for the right wing to hang their hats on.\u201d Or \u201cHe found himself up a river and had to change horses.\u201d The <\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">mixed metaphor here is the use of \u201cup a river\u201d and \u201cchange horses\u201d together; you would either need to use an all river-based metaphor (dealing with boats, water, tides, etc.) or a metaphor dealing specifically with horses.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe example above about a \u201cnew crop\u201d \u201cbeing born,\u201d is actually a mixed metaphor, since crops aren\u2019t born, but planted and harvested. Additionally, in choosing metaphors and similes, speakers want to avoid clich\u00e9s, discussed next\u00a0<strong>Clich\u00e9s <\/strong>are expressions, usually similes, that are predictable. You know what comes next because they are overused and sometimes out of date. Clich\u00e9s do not have to be linguistic\u2014we often see clich\u00e9s in movies, such as teen horror films where you know exactly what will happen next! It is not hard to think of clich\u00e9s: \u201cScared out of my . . .\u201d or \u201cWhen life gives you lemons. . .\u201d or \u201cAll is fair in. . .\u201d or, when describing a reckless driver, \u201cShe drives like a . . . \u201c If you filled in the blanks with \u201cwits,\u201d \u201cmake lemonade,\u201d \u201clove and war,\u201d \u201cor \u201cmaniac,\u201d those are clich\u00e9s.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Clich\u00e9s<\/strong>\r\n\r\npredictable and generally overused expressions; usually similes\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nClich\u00e9s are not just a problem because they are overused and boring; they also sometimes do not communicate what you need, especially to audiences whose second language is English. \u201cI will give you a ballpark figure\u201d is not as clear as \u201cI will give you an estimate,\u201d and assumes the person is familiar with American sports. Therefore, they also will make you appear less credible in the eyes of the audience because you are not analyzing them and taking their knowledge, background, and needs into account. As the United States becomes more diverse, being aware of your audience members whose first language is not English is a valuable tool for a speaker.\r\n\r\nAdditionally, some clich\u00e9s are so outdated that no one knows what they mean. \u201cThe puppy was as cute as a button\u201d is an example. You might hear your great-grandmother say this, but who really thinks buttons are cute nowadays? Clich\u00e9s are also imprecise. Although clich\u00e9s do have a comfort level to them, comfort puts people to sleep. Find fresh ways, or just use basic, literal language. \u201cThe bear was big\u201d is imprecise in terms of giving your audience an idea of how frightful an experience faced by a bear would be. \u201cThe bear was as big as a house\u201d is a clich\u00e9 and an exaggeration, therefore imprecise. A better alternative might be, \u201cThe bear was two feet taller than I am when he stood on his back legs.\u201d The opposite of clich\u00e9s is clear, vivid, and fresh language.\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nIn trying to avoid clich\u00e9s, use language with <strong>imagery<\/strong>, or sensory language. This is language that makes the recipient smell, taste, see, hear, and feel a sensation. Think of the word \u201cripe.\u201d What is \u201cripe?\u201d Do ripe fruits feel a certain way? Smell a certain way? Taste a certain way? Ripe is a sensory word. Most words just appeal to one sense, like vision. Think <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">of color. How can you make the word \u201cblue\u201d more sensory? How can you make the word \u201cloud\u201d more sensory? How would you describe the current state of your bedroom or dorm room to leave a sensory impression? How would you describe your favorite meal to leave a sensory impression? or a thunderstorm?<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Imagery<\/strong>\r\n\r\nlanguage that makes the recipient smell, taste, see, hear, and feel a sensation; also known as sensory language\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nPoetry uses much imagery, so to end this section on fresh, clear language, here is a verse from \u201cDaffodils\u201d by William Wordsworth. Notice the metaphors (\u201cdaffodils dancing,\u201d \u201chost,\u201d which brings to mind great heavenly numbers), simile (\u201cas the stars\u201d) and the imagery (\u201cgolden\u201d rather than \u201cyellow,\u201d and other appeals to feeling and sight):\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<em>A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees,<\/em>\r\n\r\n<em>Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the Milky Way.<\/em>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<h2>Effectiveness<\/h2>\r\nLanguage achieves effectiveness by communicating the right message to the audience. Clarity contributes to effectiveness, but there are some other aspects of effectiveness. To that end, language should be a means of inclusion and identification, rather than exclusion. Let\u2019s establish this truth: Language is for communication; communication is symbolic, and language is the main (but not only) symbol system we use for communication. If language is for communication, then its goal should be to bring people together and to create understanding.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nUnfortunately, we habitually use language for exclusion rather than inclusion. We can push people away with our word choices rather than bringing them together. We discussed the concepts of stereotyping and totalizing in Chapter 2, and they serve as examples of what we\u2019re talking about here. What follows are some examples of language that can exclude members of your audience from understanding what you are saying.\r\n<h2>Jargon<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Jargon <\/strong>(which we discussed in Chapter 2) used in your profession or hobby should only be used with audiences who share your profession or hobby. Not only will the audience members who don\u2019t share your profession or hobby miss your meaning, but they will feel that you are not making an honest effort to communicate or are setting yourself above them in intelligence or rank. Lawyers are often accused of using \u201clegalese,\u201d but other professions and groups do the same. If audience members do not understand your references, jargon, or vocabulary, it is unlikely that they will sit there and say, \u201cThis person is so smart! I wish I could be smart like this speaker.\u201d The audience member is more likely to be thinking, \u201cWhy can\u2019t this speaker use words we understand and get off the high horse?\u201d (which I admit, is a clich\u00e9!)\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Jargon<\/strong>\r\n\r\nlanguage used in a specific field that may or may not be understood by others\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhat this means for you is that you need to be careful about assumptions of your audience\u2019s knowledge and their ability to interpret jargon. For example, if you are trying to register for a class at the authors\u2019 college and your adviser asks for the CRN, most other people would have no idea what you are talking about (course reference number). Acronyms, such NPO, are common in jargon. Those trained in the medical field know it is based on the Latin for \u201cnothing by mouth.\u201d The military has many acronyms, such as MOS (military occupational specialty, or career field in civilian talk). If you are speaking to an audience who does not know the jargon of your field, using it will only make them annoyed by the lack of clarity.\r\n\r\nSometimes we are not even aware of our jargon and its inadvertent effects. A student once complained to one of the authors about her reaction when she heard that she had been \u201cpurged.\u201d The word sounds much worse than the meaning it had in that context: that her name was taken off the official roll due nonpayment before the beginning of the semester.\r\n<h2>Slang<\/h2>\r\nThe whole point of <strong>slang <\/strong>is for a subculture or group to have its own code, almost like secret words. Once slang is understood by the larger culture, it is no longer slang and may be classified as \u201cinformal\u201d or \u201ccolloquial\u201d language. \u201cBling\u201d was slang; now it\u2019s in the dictionary. Sports have a great deal of slang used by the players and fans that then gets used in everyday language. For example, \u201cThat was a slam dunk\u201d is used to describe something easy, not just in basketball.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Slang<\/strong>\r\n\r\na type of language that consists of words and phrases that are specific to a subculture or group that others may not understand\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Complicated vocabulary<\/h2>\r\nIf a speaker used the word \u201crecalcitrant,\u201d some audience members would know the meaning or figure it out (\u201cCalci-\u201d is like calcium, calcium is hard, etc.), but many would not. It would make much more sense for them to use a word readily understandable\u2013\u201cstubborn.\u201d Especially in oral communication, we should use language that is immediately accessible. However, do not take this to mean \u201cdumb down for your audience.\u201d It means being clear and not showing off. For a speaker to say \u201cI am cognizant of the fact that\u2026\u201d instead of \u201cI know\u201d or \u201cI am aware of\u2026\u201d adds nothing to communication.\r\n<h2>Profanity and cursing<\/h2>\r\nIt is difficult to think of many examples, other than artistic or comedy venues, where profanity or cursing would be effective or useful with most audiences, so this kind of language is generally discouraged.\r\n<h2>Credibility<\/h2>\r\nAnother aspect of effectiveness is that your language should enhance your credibility. First, audiences trust speakers who use clear, vivid, respectful, engaging, and honest language. On the other hand, audiences tend <em>not <\/em>to trust speakers who use language that excludes others or who exhibit un- educated language patterns. All of us make an occasional grammatical or usage error. However, constant verb and pronoun errors and just plain getting words confused will hurt the audience\u2019s belief that you are com- petent and knowledgeable. In addition, a speaker who uses language and references that are not immediately accessible or that are unfamiliar will have diminished credibility. Finally, you should avoid the phrase \u201cI guess\u201d in a speech. Credible speakers should know what they are talking about.\r\n<h2>Rhetorical Techniques<\/h2>\r\nThere are several traditional techniques that have been used to engage audiences and make ideas more attention-getting and memorable. These are called rhetorical techniques. Although \u201crhetorical\u201d is associated with persuasive speech, these techniques are also effective with other types of speeches. We will not mention all of them here, but some important ones are listed below. Several of them are based on a form of repetition. You can refer to an Internet source for a full list of the dozens of rhetorical devices.\r\n\r\n<strong>Assonance <\/strong>is the repetition of vowel sounds in a sentence or passage. As such, it is a kind of rhyme. Minister Tony Campolo said, \u201cWhen Jesus told his disciples to pray for the kingdom, this was no p<em>i<\/em>e in the sk<em>y <\/em>b<em>y <\/em>and b<em>y <\/em>when you d<em>ie <\/em>k<em>i<\/em>nd of prayer.\u201d\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Assonance<\/strong>\r\n\r\nthe repetition of vowel sounds in a sentence or passage\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Alliteration <\/strong>is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sentence or passage. In his \u201cI Have a Dream Speech,\u201d Dr. Martin Luther King said, \u201cI have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.\u201d Not only does this sentence use alliteration, it also uses the next rhetorical technique on our list, <strong>antithesis.<\/strong>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Alliteration<\/strong>\r\n\r\nthe repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sentence or passage\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">I Have a Dream<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nDr. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. delivered the \"I Have a Dream Speech\" during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963. As you watch the speech, consider what you're learning about the rhetorical techniques Dr. King uses. Keep this speech in mind as you read the following rhetorical techniques in this chapter.\r\n\r\nSubtitles Note: This restored video from 2023 is missing subtitles. See the full transcript of the speech at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.americanrhetoric.com\/speeches\/mlkihaveadream.htm\">American Rhetoric<\/a>.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Antithesis <\/strong>is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, or grammatical structures. Usually antithesis goes: Not this, but this. John F. Kennedy\u2019s statement from his 1961 inaugural address is one of the most quoted examples of antithesis: \u201cAsk not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.\u201d In that speech he gave another example, \u201cIf a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.\u201d\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Antithesis<\/strong>\r\n\r\nthe juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, or grammatical structures\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Parallelism <\/strong>is the repetition of sentence structures. It can be useful for stating your main ideas. Which one of these sounds better?\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\u201cGive me liberty or I\u2019d rather die.\u201d \u201cGive me liberty or give me death.\u201d<\/div>\r\nThe second one uses parallelism. Quoting again from JFK\u2019s inaugural address: \u201cLet every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.\u201d The repetition of the three-word phrases in this sentence (including the word \u201cany\u201d in each) is an example of parallelism.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Parallelism<\/strong>\r\n\r\nthe repetition of grammatical structures that correspond in sound, meter, or meaning\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Anaphora <\/strong>is a succession of sentences beginning with the same word or group of words. In his inaugural address, JFK began several succeeding paragraphs with \u201cTo those\u201d: \u201cTo those old allies,\u201d \u201cTo those new states,\u201d \u201cTo those people,\u201d etc.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Anaphora<\/strong>\r\n\r\nthe succession of sentences beginning with the same word or group of words\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Hyperbole <\/strong>is intentional exaggeration for effect. Sometimes it is for serious purposes, other times for humor. Commonly we use hyperbolic language in our everyday speech to emphasize our emotions, such as when we say \u201cI\u2019m having the worst day ever\u201d or \u201cI would kill for a cup of coffee right now.\u201d Neither of those statements is (hopefully) true, but it stresses to others the way you are feeling. Ronald Reagan, who was often disparaged for being the oldest president, would joke about his age. In one case he said, \u201cThe chamber is celebrating an important milestone this week: your 70th anniversary. I remember the day you started.\u201d\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Hyperbole<\/strong>\r\n\r\nintentional exaggeration for effect\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>Irony <\/strong>is the expression of one\u2019s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect. Although most people think they understand irony as sarcasm (such as saying to a friend who trips, \u201cThat\u2019s graceful\u201d), it is a much more complicated topic. A speaker may use it when they profess to say one thing but clearly means <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">something else or say something that is obviously untrue and everyone would recognize that and understand the purpose. Irony in oral communication can be difficult to use in a way that affects everyone in the audience the same way.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nUsing these techniques alone will not make you an effective speaker. Dr. King and President Kennedy combined them with strong metaphors and images as well; for example, Dr. King described the promises of the founding fathers as a \u201cblank check\u201d returned with the note \u201cinsufficient funds\u201d as far as the black Americans of his time were concerned. That was a very concrete, human, and familiar metaphor to his listeners and still speaks to us today.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Irony<\/strong>\r\n\r\nthe expression of one\u2019s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Appropriateness<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Appropriateness <\/strong>relates to several categories involving how persons and groups should be referred to and addressed based on inclusiveness and context. The term \u201cpolitically correct\u201d has been overused to describe the growing sensitivity to how the power of language can marginalize or exclude individuals and groups. While there are silly extremes such as the term \u201cvertically challenged\u201d for \u201cshort,\u201d these humorous examples overlook the need to be inclusive about language. Overall, people and groups should be respected and referred to in the way they choose to be. Using inclusive language in your speech will help ensure you aren\u2019t alienating or diminishing any members of your audience.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Appropriateness<\/strong>\r\n\r\nhow persons and groups should be referred to and addressed based on inclusiveness and context\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<h2>Gender-Inclusive Language<\/h2>\r\nThe first common form of non-inclusive language is language that privileges one of the sexes over the other. There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking: using \u201che\u201d as generic, using \u201cman\u201d to mean all humans, and gender-typing jobs. Consider the statement, \u201cEvery morning when an officer of the law puts on his badge, he risks his life to serve and protect his fellow citizens.\u201d Obviously, both male and female police officers risk their lives when they put on their badges.\r\n\r\nA better way to word the sentence would be, \u201cEvery morning when officers of the law put on their badges, they risk their lives to serve and protect their fellow citizens.\u201d Notice that in the better sentence, we made the subject plural (\u201cofficers\u201d) and used neutral pronouns (\u201cthey\u201d and \u201ctheir\u201d) to avoid the generic \u201che.\u201d Likewise, speakers of English have traditionally used terms like \u201cman,\u201d and \u201cmankind\u201d when referring to both females and males. Instead of using the word \u201cman,\u201d refer to the \u201chuman race.\u201d\r\n\r\nThe last common area where speakers get into trouble with gender and language has to do with job titles. It is not unusual for people to assume, for example, that doctors are male and nurses are female. As a result, they may say \u201cshe is a woman doctor\u201d or \u201che is a male nurse\u201d when mentioning <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">someone\u2019s occupation, perhaps not realizing that the statements \u201cshe is a doctor\u201d and \u201che is a nurse\u201d already inform the listener as to the sex of the person holding that job.<\/span>\r\n<h2>Ethnic Identity<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Ethnic identity <\/strong>refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture. For example, within the United States we have numerous ethnic groups, including Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Japanese Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Cuban Americans, and Mexican Americans. As with the earlier example of \u201cmale nurse,\u201d avoid statements such as \u201cThe committee is made up of four women and a Vietnamese man.\u201d All that should be said is, \u201cThe committee is made up of five people.\u201d\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Ethnic Identity<\/strong>\r\n\r\na group an individual identifies with based on a common culture\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIf for some reason gender and ethnicity have to be mentioned\u2014and usually it does not\u2014the gender and ethnicity of each member should be mentioned equally. \u201cThe committee is made up of three European-American women, one Latina, and one Vietnamese male.\u201d In recent years, there has been a trend toward steering inclusive language away from broad terms like \u201cAsians\u201d and \u201cHispanics\u201d because these terms are not considered precise labels for the groups they actually represent. If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong to an ethnic group how they prefer to be referred to in that context.\r\n<h2>Disability<\/h2>\r\nThe last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some speakers relates to individuals with physical or intellectual disabilities or forms of mental illness. Sometimes it happens that we take a characteristic of someone and make that the totality or all of what that person is. For example, some people are still uncomfortable around persons who use wheelchairs and don\u2019t know how to react. They may totalize and think that the wheelchair defines and therefore limits the user. The person in the wheelchair might be a great guitarist, sculptor, parent, public speaker, or scientist, but those qualities are not seen, only the wheelchair.\r\n\r\nAlthough the terms \u201cvisually impaired\u201d and \u201chearing impaired\u201d are sometimes used for \u201cblind\u201d and \u201cdeaf,\u201d this is another situation where the person should be referred to as he or she prefers. \u201cHearing impaired\u201d denotes a wide range of hearing deficit, as does \u201cvisually impaired. \u201cDeaf\u201d and \u201cblind\u201d are not generally considered offensive by these groups.\r\n\r\nAnother example is how to refer to what used to be called \u201cautism.\u201d Saying someone is \u201cautistic\u201d is similar to the word \u201cretarded\u201d in that neither is appropriate. Preferable terms are \u201ca person with an autism diagnosis\u201d or \u201ca person on the autism spectrum.\u201d In place of \u201cretarded,\u201d \u201ca person with intellectual disabilities\u201d should be used. Likewise, slang words for mental illness should always be avoided, such as \u201ccrazy\u201d or \u201cmental.\u201d\r\n<h2>Other Types of Appropriateness<\/h2>\r\nLanguage in a speech should be appropriate to the speaker and the speaker\u2019s background and personality, to the context, to the audience, and to the topic. Let\u2019s say that you\u2019re an engineering student. If you\u2019re giving a presentation in an engineering class, you can use language that other engineering students will know. On the other hand, if you use that engineering vocabulary in a public speaking class, many audience members will not understand you. As another example, if you are speaking about the Great Depression to an audience of young adults or recent immigrants, you can\u2019t assume they will know the meaning of terms like \u201cNew Deal\u201d and \u201cWPA,\u201d which would be familiar to an audience of senior citizens. Audience analysis is a key factor in choosing the language to use in a speech.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<p>Clear language is powerful language. Clarity is the first concern of a public speaker when it comes to choosing how to phrase the ideas of his or her speech. If you are not clear, specific, precise, detailed, and sensory with your language, you won\u2019t have to worry about being emotional or persuasive, because you won\u2019t be understood. There are many aspects of clarity in language, listed below.<\/p>\n<h2>Achieving Clarity<\/h2>\n<p>The first aspect of clarity is concreteness. We usually think of concreteness as the opposite of abstraction. Language that evokes many different visual images in the minds of your audience is <strong>abstract language<\/strong>. Unfortunately, when abstract language is used, the images evoked might not be the ones you really want to evoke. A word such as \u201cart\u201d is very abstract; it brings up a range of mental pictures or associations: dance, theatre, painting, drama, a child\u2019s drawing on a refrigerator, sculpture, music, etc. When asked to identify what an abstract term like \u201cart\u201d means, twenty people will have twenty different ideas.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Abstract language<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>language that evokes many different visual images in the minds of your audience<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_492\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-492\" style=\"width: 288px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-492\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-470x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Ladder of Abstraction\u00a0\" width=\"288\" height=\"628\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-470x1024.jpg 470w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-138x300.jpg 138w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-65x142.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-225x490.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction-350x762.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Ladder-of-Abstraction.jpg 570w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 288px) 100vw, 288px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-492\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10.1<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">In order to show how language should be more specific, the \u201cladder of abstraction\u201d (Hayakawa, 1939) was developed. The ladder of abstraction in Figure 10.1 helps us see how our language can range from abstract (general and sometimes vague) to very precise and specific (such as an actual person that everyone in your audience will know).<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Ladder of Abstraction<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Examine this ladder of abstraction:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Bernini&#8217;s Sculpture of David<\/li>\n<li>Baroque Sculpture<\/li>\n<li>Marble Sculpture<\/li>\n<li>Three-Dimensional Art<\/li>\n<li>Visual Art<\/li>\n<li>Art<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>You probably understood the ladder until it came to the word \u201cBaroque.\u201d At Bernini\u2019s, <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">you might get confused if you do not know much about art history. If the top level said \u201cBernini\u2019s David,\u201d a specific sculpture, that would be confusing to some because while almost everyone is familiar with Michelangelo\u2019s <\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">David<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">, Bernini\u2019s version is very different. It\u2019s life-sized, moving, and clothed. Bernini\u2019s is as much a symbol of the Baroque Age as Michelangelo\u2019s is of the Renaissance. But unless you\u2019ve taken an art history course, the reference, though very specific, is meaningless to you, and even worse, it might strike you as showing off. In fact, to make my point, here they are in Figure 10.2. A picture is worth a thousand words, right?<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_493\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-493\" style=\"width: 288px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-493\" style=\"color: #373d3f; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; word-spacing: normal;\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David-300x167.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance David (Michelangelo vs. Bernini's David)\" width=\"288\" height=\"161\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David-300x167.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David-65x36.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David-225x125.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David-350x195.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/256\/2025\/05\/Renaissance-David-vs-Berninis-David.jpg 524w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 288px) 100vw, 288px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-493\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10.2<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>Related to the issue of specific vs. abstract is the use of the right word. Mark Twain said, \u201cThe difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between lightning and a lightning bug.\u201d For example, the words \u201cprosecute\u201d and \u201cpersecute\u201d are commonly confused, but not interchangeable. Two others are peremptory\/pre-emptive and prerequisites\/perquisites. Can you think of other such word pair confusion?<\/p>\n<p>In the attempt to be clear, which is your first concern, you will also want to be simple and familiar in your language. Familiarity is a factor of attention (Chapter 7); familiar language draws in the audience. Simple does not mean simplistic, but the avoidance of multi-syllable words. If a speaker said, \u201cA collection of pre-adolescents fabricated an obese personification comprised of compressed mounds of minute aquatic crystals,\u201d you might recognize it as \u201cSome children made a snowman,\u201d but maybe not. The language is not simple or familiar and therefore does not communicate well, although the words are correct and do mean the same thing, technically.<\/p>\n<p>Along with language needing to be specific and correct, language can use appropriate similes and metaphors to become clearer. <strong>Literal language <\/strong>does not use comparisons like similes and metaphors; <strong>figurative language <\/strong>uses comparisons with objects, animals, activities, roles, or historical or literary figures. Literal says, \u201cThe truck is fast.\u201d Figurative says \u201cThe truck is as fast as\u2026\u201c or \u201cThe truck runs like\u2026\u201d or \u201cHe drives that truck like Kyle Busch at Daytona.\u201d <strong>Similes <\/strong>use some form of \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d in the comparisons. <strong>Metaphors <\/strong>are direct comparisons, such as \u201cHe is Kyle Busch at Daytona when he gets behind the wheel of that truck.\u201d Here are some more examples of metaphors:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<ul>\n<li><em>Love is a battlefield.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Upon hearing the charges, the accused clammed up and refused to speak without a lawyer.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Every year a new crop of activists is born.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Literal language<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>language that does not use comparisons like similes and metaphors<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Figurative language<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>language that uses metaphors and similes to compare things that may not be literally alike<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Similes<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>a figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind (specifically using the terms \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d), used to make a description more emphatic or vivid<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Metaphors<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>a figure of speech that identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>For rhetorical purposes, metaphors are considered stronger, but both can help you achieve clearer language, if chosen wisely. To think about how metaphor is stronger than simile, think of the difference \u201cLove is a battlefield\u201d and \u201cLove is <em>like <\/em>a battlefield.\u201d Speakers are encouraged to pick <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">their metaphors and not overuse them. Also, avoid mixed metaphors, as in this example: \u201cThat\u2019s awfully thin gruel for the right wing to hang their hats on.\u201d Or \u201cHe found himself up a river and had to change horses.\u201d The <\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">mixed metaphor here is the use of \u201cup a river\u201d and \u201cchange horses\u201d together; you would either need to use an all river-based metaphor (dealing with boats, water, tides, etc.) or a metaphor dealing specifically with horses.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The example above about a \u201cnew crop\u201d \u201cbeing born,\u201d is actually a mixed metaphor, since crops aren\u2019t born, but planted and harvested. Additionally, in choosing metaphors and similes, speakers want to avoid clich\u00e9s, discussed next\u00a0<strong>Clich\u00e9s <\/strong>are expressions, usually similes, that are predictable. You know what comes next because they are overused and sometimes out of date. Clich\u00e9s do not have to be linguistic\u2014we often see clich\u00e9s in movies, such as teen horror films where you know exactly what will happen next! It is not hard to think of clich\u00e9s: \u201cScared out of my . . .\u201d or \u201cWhen life gives you lemons. . .\u201d or \u201cAll is fair in. . .\u201d or, when describing a reckless driver, \u201cShe drives like a . . . \u201c If you filled in the blanks with \u201cwits,\u201d \u201cmake lemonade,\u201d \u201clove and war,\u201d \u201cor \u201cmaniac,\u201d those are clich\u00e9s.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Clich\u00e9s<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>predictable and generally overused expressions; usually similes<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Clich\u00e9s are not just a problem because they are overused and boring; they also sometimes do not communicate what you need, especially to audiences whose second language is English. \u201cI will give you a ballpark figure\u201d is not as clear as \u201cI will give you an estimate,\u201d and assumes the person is familiar with American sports. Therefore, they also will make you appear less credible in the eyes of the audience because you are not analyzing them and taking their knowledge, background, and needs into account. As the United States becomes more diverse, being aware of your audience members whose first language is not English is a valuable tool for a speaker.<\/p>\n<p>Additionally, some clich\u00e9s are so outdated that no one knows what they mean. \u201cThe puppy was as cute as a button\u201d is an example. You might hear your great-grandmother say this, but who really thinks buttons are cute nowadays? Clich\u00e9s are also imprecise. Although clich\u00e9s do have a comfort level to them, comfort puts people to sleep. Find fresh ways, or just use basic, literal language. \u201cThe bear was big\u201d is imprecise in terms of giving your audience an idea of how frightful an experience faced by a bear would be. \u201cThe bear was as big as a house\u201d is a clich\u00e9 and an exaggeration, therefore imprecise. A better alternative might be, \u201cThe bear was two feet taller than I am when he stood on his back legs.\u201d The opposite of clich\u00e9s is clear, vivid, and fresh language.<\/p>\n<div>\n<p>In trying to avoid clich\u00e9s, use language with <strong>imagery<\/strong>, or sensory language. This is language that makes the recipient smell, taste, see, hear, and feel a sensation. Think of the word \u201cripe.\u201d What is \u201cripe?\u201d Do ripe fruits feel a certain way? Smell a certain way? Taste a certain way? Ripe is a sensory word. Most words just appeal to one sense, like vision. Think <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">of color. How can you make the word \u201cblue\u201d more sensory? How can you make the word \u201cloud\u201d more sensory? How would you describe the current state of your bedroom or dorm room to leave a sensory impression? How would you describe your favorite meal to leave a sensory impression? or a thunderstorm?<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Imagery<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>language that makes the recipient smell, taste, see, hear, and feel a sensation; also known as sensory language<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Poetry uses much imagery, so to end this section on fresh, clear language, here is a verse from \u201cDaffodils\u201d by William Wordsworth. Notice the metaphors (\u201cdaffodils dancing,\u201d \u201chost,\u201d which brings to mind great heavenly numbers), simile (\u201cas the stars\u201d) and the imagery (\u201cgolden\u201d rather than \u201cyellow,\u201d and other appeals to feeling and sight):<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><em>A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees,<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the Milky Way.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<h2>Effectiveness<\/h2>\n<p>Language achieves effectiveness by communicating the right message to the audience. Clarity contributes to effectiveness, but there are some other aspects of effectiveness. To that end, language should be a means of inclusion and identification, rather than exclusion. Let\u2019s establish this truth: Language is for communication; communication is symbolic, and language is the main (but not only) symbol system we use for communication. If language is for communication, then its goal should be to bring people together and to create understanding.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Unfortunately, we habitually use language for exclusion rather than inclusion. We can push people away with our word choices rather than bringing them together. We discussed the concepts of stereotyping and totalizing in Chapter 2, and they serve as examples of what we\u2019re talking about here. What follows are some examples of language that can exclude members of your audience from understanding what you are saying.<\/p>\n<h2>Jargon<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Jargon <\/strong>(which we discussed in Chapter 2) used in your profession or hobby should only be used with audiences who share your profession or hobby. Not only will the audience members who don\u2019t share your profession or hobby miss your meaning, but they will feel that you are not making an honest effort to communicate or are setting yourself above them in intelligence or rank. Lawyers are often accused of using \u201clegalese,\u201d but other professions and groups do the same. If audience members do not understand your references, jargon, or vocabulary, it is unlikely that they will sit there and say, \u201cThis person is so smart! I wish I could be smart like this speaker.\u201d The audience member is more likely to be thinking, \u201cWhy can\u2019t this speaker use words we understand and get off the high horse?\u201d (which I admit, is a clich\u00e9!)<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Jargon<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>language used in a specific field that may or may not be understood by others<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>What this means for you is that you need to be careful about assumptions of your audience\u2019s knowledge and their ability to interpret jargon. For example, if you are trying to register for a class at the authors\u2019 college and your adviser asks for the CRN, most other people would have no idea what you are talking about (course reference number). Acronyms, such NPO, are common in jargon. Those trained in the medical field know it is based on the Latin for \u201cnothing by mouth.\u201d The military has many acronyms, such as MOS (military occupational specialty, or career field in civilian talk). If you are speaking to an audience who does not know the jargon of your field, using it will only make them annoyed by the lack of clarity.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes we are not even aware of our jargon and its inadvertent effects. A student once complained to one of the authors about her reaction when she heard that she had been \u201cpurged.\u201d The word sounds much worse than the meaning it had in that context: that her name was taken off the official roll due nonpayment before the beginning of the semester.<\/p>\n<h2>Slang<\/h2>\n<p>The whole point of <strong>slang <\/strong>is for a subculture or group to have its own code, almost like secret words. Once slang is understood by the larger culture, it is no longer slang and may be classified as \u201cinformal\u201d or \u201ccolloquial\u201d language. \u201cBling\u201d was slang; now it\u2019s in the dictionary. Sports have a great deal of slang used by the players and fans that then gets used in everyday language. For example, \u201cThat was a slam dunk\u201d is used to describe something easy, not just in basketball.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Slang<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>a type of language that consists of words and phrases that are specific to a subculture or group that others may not understand<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Complicated vocabulary<\/h2>\n<p>If a speaker used the word \u201crecalcitrant,\u201d some audience members would know the meaning or figure it out (\u201cCalci-\u201d is like calcium, calcium is hard, etc.), but many would not. It would make much more sense for them to use a word readily understandable\u2013\u201cstubborn.\u201d Especially in oral communication, we should use language that is immediately accessible. However, do not take this to mean \u201cdumb down for your audience.\u201d It means being clear and not showing off. For a speaker to say \u201cI am cognizant of the fact that\u2026\u201d instead of \u201cI know\u201d or \u201cI am aware of\u2026\u201d adds nothing to communication.<\/p>\n<h2>Profanity and cursing<\/h2>\n<p>It is difficult to think of many examples, other than artistic or comedy venues, where profanity or cursing would be effective or useful with most audiences, so this kind of language is generally discouraged.<\/p>\n<h2>Credibility<\/h2>\n<p>Another aspect of effectiveness is that your language should enhance your credibility. First, audiences trust speakers who use clear, vivid, respectful, engaging, and honest language. On the other hand, audiences tend <em>not <\/em>to trust speakers who use language that excludes others or who exhibit un- educated language patterns. All of us make an occasional grammatical or usage error. However, constant verb and pronoun errors and just plain getting words confused will hurt the audience\u2019s belief that you are com- petent and knowledgeable. In addition, a speaker who uses language and references that are not immediately accessible or that are unfamiliar will have diminished credibility. Finally, you should avoid the phrase \u201cI guess\u201d in a speech. Credible speakers should know what they are talking about.<\/p>\n<h2>Rhetorical Techniques<\/h2>\n<p>There are several traditional techniques that have been used to engage audiences and make ideas more attention-getting and memorable. These are called rhetorical techniques. Although \u201crhetorical\u201d is associated with persuasive speech, these techniques are also effective with other types of speeches. We will not mention all of them here, but some important ones are listed below. Several of them are based on a form of repetition. You can refer to an Internet source for a full list of the dozens of rhetorical devices.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Assonance <\/strong>is the repetition of vowel sounds in a sentence or passage. As such, it is a kind of rhyme. Minister Tony Campolo said, \u201cWhen Jesus told his disciples to pray for the kingdom, this was no p<em>i<\/em>e in the sk<em>y <\/em>b<em>y <\/em>and b<em>y <\/em>when you d<em>ie <\/em>k<em>i<\/em>nd of prayer.\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Assonance<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>the repetition of vowel sounds in a sentence or passage<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Alliteration <\/strong>is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sentence or passage. In his \u201cI Have a Dream Speech,\u201d Dr. Martin Luther King said, \u201cI have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.\u201d Not only does this sentence use alliteration, it also uses the next rhetorical technique on our list, <strong>antithesis.<\/strong><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Alliteration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sentence or passage<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">I Have a Dream<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Dr. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. delivered the &#8220;I Have a Dream Speech&#8221; during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963. As you watch the speech, consider what you&#8217;re learning about the rhetorical techniques Dr. King uses. Keep this speech in mind as you read the following rhetorical techniques in this chapter.<\/p>\n<p>Subtitles Note: This restored video from 2023 is missing subtitles. See the full transcript of the speech at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.americanrhetoric.com\/speeches\/mlkihaveadream.htm\">American Rhetoric<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Antithesis <\/strong>is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, or grammatical structures. Usually antithesis goes: Not this, but this. John F. Kennedy\u2019s statement from his 1961 inaugural address is one of the most quoted examples of antithesis: \u201cAsk not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.\u201d In that speech he gave another example, \u201cIf a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Antithesis<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, or grammatical structures<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Parallelism <\/strong>is the repetition of sentence structures. It can be useful for stating your main ideas. Which one of these sounds better?<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\u201cGive me liberty or I\u2019d rather die.\u201d \u201cGive me liberty or give me death.\u201d<\/div>\n<p>The second one uses parallelism. Quoting again from JFK\u2019s inaugural address: \u201cLet every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.\u201d The repetition of the three-word phrases in this sentence (including the word \u201cany\u201d in each) is an example of parallelism.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Parallelism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>the repetition of grammatical structures that correspond in sound, meter, or meaning<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Anaphora <\/strong>is a succession of sentences beginning with the same word or group of words. In his inaugural address, JFK began several succeeding paragraphs with \u201cTo those\u201d: \u201cTo those old allies,\u201d \u201cTo those new states,\u201d \u201cTo those people,\u201d etc.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Anaphora<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>the succession of sentences beginning with the same word or group of words<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Hyperbole <\/strong>is intentional exaggeration for effect. Sometimes it is for serious purposes, other times for humor. Commonly we use hyperbolic language in our everyday speech to emphasize our emotions, such as when we say \u201cI\u2019m having the worst day ever\u201d or \u201cI would kill for a cup of coffee right now.\u201d Neither of those statements is (hopefully) true, but it stresses to others the way you are feeling. Ronald Reagan, who was often disparaged for being the oldest president, would joke about his age. In one case he said, \u201cThe chamber is celebrating an important milestone this week: your 70th anniversary. I remember the day you started.\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Hyperbole<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>intentional exaggeration for effect<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>Irony <\/strong>is the expression of one\u2019s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect. Although most people think they understand irony as sarcasm (such as saying to a friend who trips, \u201cThat\u2019s graceful\u201d), it is a much more complicated topic. A speaker may use it when they profess to say one thing but clearly means <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">something else or say something that is obviously untrue and everyone would recognize that and understand the purpose. Irony in oral communication can be difficult to use in a way that affects everyone in the audience the same way.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Using these techniques alone will not make you an effective speaker. Dr. King and President Kennedy combined them with strong metaphors and images as well; for example, Dr. King described the promises of the founding fathers as a \u201cblank check\u201d returned with the note \u201cinsufficient funds\u201d as far as the black Americans of his time were concerned. That was a very concrete, human, and familiar metaphor to his listeners and still speaks to us today.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Irony<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>the expression of one\u2019s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Appropriateness<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Appropriateness <\/strong>relates to several categories involving how persons and groups should be referred to and addressed based on inclusiveness and context. The term \u201cpolitically correct\u201d has been overused to describe the growing sensitivity to how the power of language can marginalize or exclude individuals and groups. While there are silly extremes such as the term \u201cvertically challenged\u201d for \u201cshort,\u201d these humorous examples overlook the need to be inclusive about language. Overall, people and groups should be respected and referred to in the way they choose to be. Using inclusive language in your speech will help ensure you aren\u2019t alienating or diminishing any members of your audience.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Appropriateness<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>how persons and groups should be referred to and addressed based on inclusiveness and context<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<h2>Gender-Inclusive Language<\/h2>\n<p>The first common form of non-inclusive language is language that privileges one of the sexes over the other. There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking: using \u201che\u201d as generic, using \u201cman\u201d to mean all humans, and gender-typing jobs. Consider the statement, \u201cEvery morning when an officer of the law puts on his badge, he risks his life to serve and protect his fellow citizens.\u201d Obviously, both male and female police officers risk their lives when they put on their badges.<\/p>\n<p>A better way to word the sentence would be, \u201cEvery morning when officers of the law put on their badges, they risk their lives to serve and protect their fellow citizens.\u201d Notice that in the better sentence, we made the subject plural (\u201cofficers\u201d) and used neutral pronouns (\u201cthey\u201d and \u201ctheir\u201d) to avoid the generic \u201che.\u201d Likewise, speakers of English have traditionally used terms like \u201cman,\u201d and \u201cmankind\u201d when referring to both females and males. Instead of using the word \u201cman,\u201d refer to the \u201chuman race.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>The last common area where speakers get into trouble with gender and language has to do with job titles. It is not unusual for people to assume, for example, that doctors are male and nurses are female. As a result, they may say \u201cshe is a woman doctor\u201d or \u201che is a male nurse\u201d when mentioning <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">someone\u2019s occupation, perhaps not realizing that the statements \u201cshe is a doctor\u201d and \u201che is a nurse\u201d already inform the listener as to the sex of the person holding that job.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2>Ethnic Identity<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Ethnic identity <\/strong>refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture. For example, within the United States we have numerous ethnic groups, including Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Japanese Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Cuban Americans, and Mexican Americans. As with the earlier example of \u201cmale nurse,\u201d avoid statements such as \u201cThe committee is made up of four women and a Vietnamese man.\u201d All that should be said is, \u201cThe committee is made up of five people.\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Ethnic Identity<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>If for some reason gender and ethnicity have to be mentioned\u2014and usually it does not\u2014the gender and ethnicity of each member should be mentioned equally. \u201cThe committee is made up of three European-American women, one Latina, and one Vietnamese male.\u201d In recent years, there has been a trend toward steering inclusive language away from broad terms like \u201cAsians\u201d and \u201cHispanics\u201d because these terms are not considered precise labels for the groups they actually represent. If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong to an ethnic group how they prefer to be referred to in that context.<\/p>\n<h2>Disability<\/h2>\n<p>The last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some speakers relates to individuals with physical or intellectual disabilities or forms of mental illness. Sometimes it happens that we take a characteristic of someone and make that the totality or all of what that person is. For example, some people are still uncomfortable around persons who use wheelchairs and don\u2019t know how to react. They may totalize and think that the wheelchair defines and therefore limits the user. The person in the wheelchair might be a great guitarist, sculptor, parent, public speaker, or scientist, but those qualities are not seen, only the wheelchair.<\/p>\n<p>Although the terms \u201cvisually impaired\u201d and \u201chearing impaired\u201d are sometimes used for \u201cblind\u201d and \u201cdeaf,\u201d this is another situation where the person should be referred to as he or she prefers. \u201cHearing impaired\u201d denotes a wide range of hearing deficit, as does \u201cvisually impaired. \u201cDeaf\u201d and \u201cblind\u201d are not generally considered offensive by these groups.<\/p>\n<p>Another example is how to refer to what used to be called \u201cautism.\u201d Saying someone is \u201cautistic\u201d is similar to the word \u201cretarded\u201d in that neither is appropriate. Preferable terms are \u201ca person with an autism diagnosis\u201d or \u201ca person on the autism spectrum.\u201d In place of \u201cretarded,\u201d \u201ca person with intellectual disabilities\u201d should be used. Likewise, slang words for mental illness should always be avoided, such as \u201ccrazy\u201d or \u201cmental.\u201d<\/p>\n<h2>Other Types of Appropriateness<\/h2>\n<p>Language in a speech should be appropriate to the speaker and the speaker\u2019s background and personality, to the context, to the audience, and to the topic. Let\u2019s say that you\u2019re an engineering student. If you\u2019re giving a presentation in an engineering class, you can use language that other engineering students will know. On the other hand, if you use that engineering vocabulary in a public speaking class, many audience members will not understand you. As another example, if you are speaking about the Great Depression to an audience of young adults or recent immigrants, you can\u2019t assume they will know the meaning of terms like \u201cNew Deal\u201d and \u201cWPA,\u201d which would be familiar to an audience of senior citizens. Audience analysis is a key factor in choosing the language to use in a speech.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":133,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-491","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":487,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/491","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/133"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/491\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":830,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/491\/revisions\/830"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/487"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/491\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=491"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=491"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=491"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=491"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}