{"id":460,"date":"2025-05-12T22:20:39","date_gmt":"2025-05-12T22:20:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/?post_type=chapter&p=460"},"modified":"2025-07-13T20:28:55","modified_gmt":"2025-07-13T20:28:55","slug":"types-of-presentation-aids","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom1150publicspeaking\/chapter\/types-of-presentation-aids\/","title":{"raw":"Types of Presentation Aids","rendered":"Types of Presentation Aids"},"content":{"raw":"Now that we\u2019ve explored some basic hints for preparing visual aids, let\u2019s look at the most common types of visual aids: charts, graphs, representations, objects\/models, and people.\r\n

Charts<\/h2>\r\nA chart <\/strong>is commonly defined as a graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process. Whether you create your charts or do research to find charts that already exist, it is important for them to exactly match the specific purpose in your speech. Figure 9.6 (\u201cAcupuncture Charts\u201d) shows two charts related to acupuncture. Although both charts are good, they are not equal. One chart might be useful in a speech about the history and development of acupuncture while the other chart would be more useful for showing the locations of meridians (the lines along which energy flows) and the acupuncture points.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_461\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"477\"]\"Two Figure 9.6 - Acupuncture Charts[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe rest of this section will explore three common types of charts: statistical charts, sequence-of-steps chart, and decision trees.\r\n
\r\n\r\nChart<\/strong>\r\n\r\ngraphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

Statistical Charts<\/h3>\r\nFor most audiences, statistical presentations must be kept as simple as possible, and they must be explained. The statistical chart shown in Figure 9.6 (\u201cBirth Weight Chi-Square\u201d) is from a study examining the effects of maternal smoking on a range of congenital birth defects. Unless you are familiar with statistics, this chart may be very confusing. When visually displaying information from a quantitative study, you need to make sure that you understand the material and can successfully and simply explain how one should interpret the data. If you are unsure about the data yourself, then you should probably not use this type of information. This is definitely an example of a visual aid that, although it delivers a limited kind of information, does not speak for itself. On the other hand, if you are presenting to an upper level or graduate class in health sciences or to professionals in health occupations, this chart would be appropriate. As with all other principles of public speaking, KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_462\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"510\"]\"Birth Figure 9.7[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSequence-of-Steps Charts<\/span>\r\n
\r\n\r\nCharts are also useful when you are trying to explain a process that involves several steps. The two visual aids in Figure 9.8 (\u201cSteps in Cell Reproduction\u201d) both depict the process of cell division called mitosis using a sequence-of-steps chart, but they each deliver different information. The first chart lacks labels to indicate the different phases of cell division. Although the first chart has more visual detail and may look more scientific, the missing information may confuse your audience. In the second chart, each phase is labeled with a brief explanation of what is happening, which can help your audience understand the process.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_463\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"285\"]\"Steps Figure 9.8[\/caption]\r\n

Decision Trees<\/span><\/h3>\r\nDecision trees are useful for showing the relationships between ideas. The example in Figure 9.9 (\u201cOpen Educational Resource Decision Tree\u201d) shows how a decision tree could be used to determine whether to use open-source textbook material. As with the other types of charts, you want to be sure that the information in the chart is relevant to the purpose of your speech and that each question and decision is clearly labeled. This particular tree is pertinent to this textbook, which is an open educational resource drawing from other open educational resources, and the decision tree shows some of the processes the authors went through to decide on the content of this text.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_464\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"383\"]\"Open Figure 9.9[\/caption]\r\n

Graphs<\/span><\/h2>\r\nStrictly speaking, a graph <\/strong>may be considered a type of chart, but graphs are so widely used that we will discuss them separately. A graph is a pictorial representation of the relationships of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like. Graphs show how one factor (such as size, weight, number of items) varies in comparison to other items. Whereas a statistical chart may report the mean ages of individuals entering college, a graph would show how the mean age changes over time. A statistical chart may report the number of computers sold in the United States, while a graph will use bars or lines to show their breakdown by operating systems such as Windows, Macintosh, and Linux.\r\n
\r\n\r\nGraph<\/strong>\r\n\r\na pictorial representation of the relationship of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nPublic speakers can show graphs using a range of different formats. Some of those formats are specialized for various professional fields. Very complex graphs often contain too much information that is not related to the purpose of a student\u2019s speech. If the graph is cluttered, it becomes difficult to comprehend. In this section, we\u2019re going to analyze the common graphs speakers utilize in their speeches: line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs, and pictographs.\r\n

Line Graph<\/h3>\r\nA line graph <\/strong>is designed to show trends over time. In Figure 9.10 (\u201cEnron\u2019s Stock Price\u201d), we see a line graph depicting the fall of Enron\u2019s stock price from August 2000 to January 2002. Notice that although it has some steep rises, the line has an overall downward trend clearly depicting the plummeting of Enron\u2019s stock price. This is far more effective in showing the relationship of numbers than a chart (as in Figure 9.7) or reading the numbers aloud.\r\n
\r\n\r\nLine graph<\/strong>\r\n\r\na graph designed to show trends over time\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_465\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"429\"]\"Enron's Figure 9.10[\/caption]\r\n

Bar Graph<\/span><\/h3>\r\n
\r\n\r\nBar graphs <\/strong>are useful for showing the differences between quantities. They can be used for population demographics, fuel costs, math ability in different grades, and many other kinds of data. The graph in Figure\r\n\r\nThe graph in Figure 9.11 (\u201cDistribution of Income and Wealth in the United States\u201d) is a complicated bar graph depicting the disparity between the so-called \u201chaves\u201d and the \u201chave nots\u201d within the United States. On the left-hand side of the graph you can see that the Top 20% of people within the United States account for 84.7% of all of the wealth and 50.1% of all of the income. On the other hand, those in the bottom 40% account for only 0.2% of the wealth and 12.1% of the actual income.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_466\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"589\"]\"Distribution Figure 9.11[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile the graph is very well designed, it presents a great deal of information. For example, it shows \u201cwealth\u201d and \u201cincome,\u201d for several groups; however, these are related but different concepts. In a written publication, readers will have time to sit and analyze the graph, but in a speaking situa<\/span>t<\/em>ion,<\/em> audience members need to be able to understand the information in a graph very quickly.<\/span>\r\n
\r\n

Pie Graph<\/h3>\r\nPie graphs <\/strong>are usually depicted as circles and are designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data; in other words, they show parts of or percentages of a whole. They should be simplified as much as possible without eliminating important information. As with other graphs, the sections of the pie need to be plotted proportionally. In the pie graph shown in Figure 9.12 (\u201cCauses of Concussions in Children\u201d), we see a clear and proportional chart that has been color-coded. Color-coding is useful when it\u2019s difficult to fit the explanations in the actual sections of the graph; in that case, you need to include a legend, or key, to indicate what the colors in the graph mean. In this graph, audience members can see very quickly that falls are the primary reason children receive concussions. However, the pie graph in Figure 9.13 (\u201cWorld Populations\u201d) is jumbled, illegible, confusing, and overwhelming in every way. The use of color coding doesn\u2019t help. Overall, this graph simply contains too much information and is more likely to confuse an audience than help them understand something.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_467\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"413\"]\"Causes Figure 9.12[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_468\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"440\"]\"World Figure 9.13[\/caption]\r\n\r\n
\r\n\r\nPie graph<\/strong>\r\n\r\na graph designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

Pictograph<\/h3>\r\nSimilar to bar graphs, pictographs <\/strong>use numbers and\/or sizes of iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts. If you were trying to show the output of oil from various countries through oil wells, each oil well representing ten million barrels a day, it might be hard for the audience to see the difference between a third of an oil well and a fourth of one, but that is a significant difference in amounts (3.3 million versus 2.5 million).\r\n
\r\n\r\nPictograph<\/strong>\r\n\r\na graph using iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nGraphs can present challenges in being effective but also in being ethical. To be both ethical and effective, you need a good understanding of what statistics mean, and you need to create or use graphs that show amounts clearly. If you were showing GPAs of freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students at your college, and the bottom number on the graph was 25 rather than 0.0, that would result in a visually bigger difference than what really exists (see Figure 9.14).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_469\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"503\"]\"Misrepresentative Figure 9.14[\/caption]\r\n

Diagrams<\/span><\/h2>\r\nDiagrams <\/strong>are drawings or sketches that outline and explain the parts of an object, process, or phenomenon that cannot be readily seen. Like graphs, diagrams can be considered a type of chart, as in the case of organizational charts and process-flow charts.\r\n\r\nWhen you use a diagram, be sure to explain each part of the phenomenon, paying special attention to elements that are complicated or prone to misunderstanding. In the example shown in Figure 9.15 (\u201cThe Human Eye\u201d), you might wish to highlight that the light stimulus is reversed when it is processed through the brain or that the optic nerve is not a single stalk as many people think.\r\n
\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_470\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"485\"]\"The Figure 9.15[\/caption]\r\n

Maps<\/span><\/h2>\r\nMaps are extremely useful if the information is clear and limited. There are all kinds of maps, including population, weather, ocean current, political, and economic maps, so you should find the right kind for the purpose of your speech. Choose a map that emphasizes the information you need to deliver. The map shown in Figure 9.16 (\u201cAfrican Map with Nigerian Emphasis\u201d) is simple, showing clearly the geographic location of Nigeria. This can be extremely valuable for some audiences who might not be able to name and locate countries on the continent of Africa. The map also shows the relative size of Nigeria compared to its neighbors. Figure 9.17 (\u201cRhode Island Map\u201d) is a map of the state of Rhode Island, and it emphasizes the complicated configuration of islands and waterways that characterize this state\u2019s geography.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_472\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"394\"]\"Map Figure 9.16[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_474\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"512\"]\"Rhode Figure 9.17[\/caption]\r\n

Photographs and Drawings<\/h2>\r\nSometimes a photograph or a drawing is the best way to show an unfamiliar but important detail. Figure 9.19 (\u201cWigwam Photograph\u201d) is a photograph of a wigwam, a dwelling used by Native Americans in the North East. Audiences expect high quality in photographs now, and as with all presentation aids they should enhance the speech and not just \u201cbe there.\u201d It is common to put stock photographs on PowerPoint slides as \u201cclip art,\u201d but they should be relevant and not detract from the message of the slide.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_475\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"197\"]\"Wigwam Figure 9.19[\/caption]\r\n\r\nVideo or Audio Recordings<\/span>\r\n
\r\n\r\nAnother very useful type of presentation aid is a video or audio recording. Whether it is a short video from a website such as YouTube or Vimeo, a segment from a song, or a piece of a podcast, a well-chosen video or audio recording may be a good choice to enhance your speech. Imagine, for example, that you\u2019re giving a speech on how Lap-Band surgeries help people lose weight. One of the sections of your speech could explain how the lap band works, so you could easily show a forty-three-second video available on YouTube to demonstrate the part of the surgery. Maybe you could include a recording of a real patient explaining why they decided to get the lap band.\r\n\r\nThere is one major warning to using audio and video clips during a speech: do not forget that they are supposed to be aids to your speech, not the speech itself. In addition, be sure to avoid these five mistakes that speakers often make when using audio and video clips:\r\n
\r\n
    \r\n \t
  • Avoid choosing clips that are too long for the overall length of the speech. Your instructor can give you some guidelines for how long video and audio clips should be for the speeches in your class, if they are allowed (and make sure they are).<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Practice with the audio or video equipment prior to speaking. If you are unfamiliar with the equipment, you\u2019ll look foolish trying to figure out how it works. This fiddling around will not only take your audience out of your speech but also have a negative impact on your credibility. It also wastes valuable time. Finally, be sure that the speakers on the computer are on and at the right volume level.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Cue the clip to the appropriate place prior to beginning your speech. We cannot tell you the number of times we\u2019ve seen students spend valuable speech time trying to find a clip on YouTube or a DVD. You need to make sure your clip is ready to go before you start speaking. Later in this chapter, we will look at using video links in slides.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • In addition to cuing the clip to the appropriate place, the browser window should be open and ready to go. If there are advertisements before the video, be sure to have the video cued to play after the ad. The audience should not have to sit through a commercial. There is a website called TubeChop that can allow you to cut a segment out of a YouTube video, then creating a new link. It has limitations but can be useful.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • The audience must be given context before a video or audio clip is played, specifically what the clip is and why it relates to the speech. At the same time, the video should not repeat what you have already said, but add to it.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n

    Objects or Models<\/h2>\r\nObjects and models are another form of presentation aid that can be very helpful in getting your audience to understand your message. Objects refer to anything you could hold up and talk about during your speech. If you\u2019re talking about the importance of not using plastic water bottles, you might hold up a plastic water bottle and a stainless steel water bottle as examples.\r\n\r\nModels, on the other hand, are re-creations of physical objects that you cannot have readily available with you during a speech. If you\u2019re giving a speech on heart murmurs, you may be able to show how heart murmurs work by holding up a model of the human heart. As will be discussed in the section on handouts below, a speaker should not pass an object or model around during a speech. It is highly distracting.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n

    People and Animals<\/h2>\r\nThe next category of presentation aids is people and animals. We can often use ourselves or other people to adequately demonstrate an idea during our speeches.\r\n

    Animals as Presentation Aids<\/h3>\r\nWhen giving a speech on a topic relating to animals, it is often tempting to bring an animal to serve as your presentation aid. While this can sometimes add a very engaging dimension to the speech, it carries some serious risks that you need to consider.\r\n\r\nThe first risk is that animal behavior tends to be unpredictable. You may think this won\u2019t be a problem if your presentation aid animal is small enough to be kept confined throughout your speech\u2014for example, a goldfish in a bowl or a lizard or bird in a cage. However, even caged animals can be very distracting to your audience if they run about, chirp, or exhibit other agitated behavior. The chances are great that an animal will react to the stress of an unfamiliar situation by displaying behavior that does not contribute positively to your speech or to the cleanliness of the physical environment. Additionally, the animal\u2019s behavior may not only affect audience's attention during your speech, but potentially during your classmates\u2019 speeches as well.\r\n\r\nThe second risk is that some audience members may respond negatively to a live animal. In addition to common fears and aversions to animals like snakes, spiders, and mice, many people have allergies to various animals. One of the authors had an experience where a student brought his six-foot yellow python to class for a speech. As a result, one of the other students refused to stay in the room because of her snake phobia (the instructor was not too comfortable either).\r\n\r\nThe third risk is that some locations may have regulations about bringing non-service animals onto the premises. If animals are allowed, the person bringing the animal may be required to bring a veterinary certificate or may be legally responsible for any damage caused by the animal.\r\n\r\nFor these reasons, before you decide to use an animal as a presentation aid, ask yourself if you could make your point equally well with a picture, model, diagram, or other representation of the animal in question.\r\n

    Speaker as Presentation Aid<\/h2>\r\nSpeakers can often use their own bodies to demonstrate facets of a speech. If your speech is about ballroom dancing or ballet, you might use your body to demonstrate the basic moves in the cha-cha or the five basic ballet positions.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Other People as Presentation Aids<\/h3>\r\nIn some cases, such as for a demonstration speech, you might want to ask someone else to serve as your presentation aid. You should arrange ahead of time for a person (or persons) to be an effective aid\u2014do not assume that an audience member will volunteer on the spot. If you plan to demonstrate how to immobilize a broken bone, your volunteer must know ahead of time that you will touch them as much as necessary to splint the break.\r\n\r\nYou must also make certain that they will arrive dressed presentably and that they will not draw attention away from your message through their appearance or behavior. The transaction between you and your human presentation aid must be appropriate, especially if you are going to demonstrate something like a dance step. In short, make sure your helper will know what is expected of them and consents to it.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n ","rendered":"

    Now that we\u2019ve explored some basic hints for preparing visual aids, let\u2019s look at the most common types of visual aids: charts, graphs, representations, objects\/models, and people.<\/p>\n

    Charts<\/h2>\n

    A chart <\/strong>is commonly defined as a graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process. Whether you create your charts or do research to find charts that already exist, it is important for them to exactly match the specific purpose in your speech. Figure 9.6 (\u201cAcupuncture Charts\u201d) shows two charts related to acupuncture. Although both charts are good, they are not equal. One chart might be useful in a speech about the history and development of acupuncture while the other chart would be more useful for showing the locations of meridians (the lines along which energy flows) and the acupuncture points.<\/p>\n

    \"Two
    Figure 9.6 – Acupuncture Charts<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    The rest of this section will explore three common types of charts: statistical charts, sequence-of-steps chart, and decision trees.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Chart<\/strong><\/p>\n

    graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    Statistical Charts<\/h3>\n

    For most audiences, statistical presentations must be kept as simple as possible, and they must be explained. The statistical chart shown in Figure 9.6 (\u201cBirth Weight Chi-Square\u201d) is from a study examining the effects of maternal smoking on a range of congenital birth defects. Unless you are familiar with statistics, this chart may be very confusing. When visually displaying information from a quantitative study, you need to make sure that you understand the material and can successfully and simply explain how one should interpret the data. If you are unsure about the data yourself, then you should probably not use this type of information. This is definitely an example of a visual aid that, although it delivers a limited kind of information, does not speak for itself. On the other hand, if you are presenting to an upper level or graduate class in health sciences or to professionals in health occupations, this chart would be appropriate. As with all other principles of public speaking, KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE.<\/p>\n

    \"Birth
    Figure 9.7<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Sequence-of-Steps Charts<\/span><\/p>\n

    \n

    Charts are also useful when you are trying to explain a process that involves several steps. The two visual aids in Figure 9.8 (\u201cSteps in Cell Reproduction\u201d) both depict the process of cell division called mitosis using a sequence-of-steps chart, but they each deliver different information. The first chart lacks labels to indicate the different phases of cell division. Although the first chart has more visual detail and may look more scientific, the missing information may confuse your audience. In the second chart, each phase is labeled with a brief explanation of what is happening, which can help your audience understand the process.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \"Steps
    Figure 9.8<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Decision Trees<\/span><\/h3>\n

    Decision trees are useful for showing the relationships between ideas. The example in Figure 9.9 (\u201cOpen Educational Resource Decision Tree\u201d) shows how a decision tree could be used to determine whether to use open-source textbook material. As with the other types of charts, you want to be sure that the information in the chart is relevant to the purpose of your speech and that each question and decision is clearly labeled. This particular tree is pertinent to this textbook, which is an open educational resource drawing from other open educational resources, and the decision tree shows some of the processes the authors went through to decide on the content of this text.<\/p>\n

    \"Open
    Figure 9.9<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Graphs<\/span><\/h2>\n

    Strictly speaking, a graph <\/strong>may be considered a type of chart, but graphs are so widely used that we will discuss them separately. A graph is a pictorial representation of the relationships of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like. Graphs show how one factor (such as size, weight, number of items) varies in comparison to other items. Whereas a statistical chart may report the mean ages of individuals entering college, a graph would show how the mean age changes over time. A statistical chart may report the number of computers sold in the United States, while a graph will use bars or lines to show their breakdown by operating systems such as Windows, Macintosh, and Linux.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Graph<\/strong><\/p>\n

    a pictorial representation of the relationship of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    Public speakers can show graphs using a range of different formats. Some of those formats are specialized for various professional fields. Very complex graphs often contain too much information that is not related to the purpose of a student\u2019s speech. If the graph is cluttered, it becomes difficult to comprehend. In this section, we\u2019re going to analyze the common graphs speakers utilize in their speeches: line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs, and pictographs.<\/p>\n

    Line Graph<\/h3>\n

    A line graph <\/strong>is designed to show trends over time. In Figure 9.10 (\u201cEnron\u2019s Stock Price\u201d), we see a line graph depicting the fall of Enron\u2019s stock price from August 2000 to January 2002. Notice that although it has some steep rises, the line has an overall downward trend clearly depicting the plummeting of Enron\u2019s stock price. This is far more effective in showing the relationship of numbers than a chart (as in Figure 9.7) or reading the numbers aloud.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Line graph<\/strong><\/p>\n

    a graph designed to show trends over time<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \"Enron's
    Figure 9.10<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Bar Graph<\/span><\/h3>\n
    \n

    Bar graphs <\/strong>are useful for showing the differences between quantities. They can be used for population demographics, fuel costs, math ability in different grades, and many other kinds of data. The graph in Figure<\/p>\n

    The graph in Figure 9.11 (\u201cDistribution of Income and Wealth in the United States\u201d) is a complicated bar graph depicting the disparity between the so-called \u201chaves\u201d and the \u201chave nots\u201d within the United States. On the left-hand side of the graph you can see that the Top 20% of people within the United States account for 84.7% of all of the wealth and 50.1% of all of the income. On the other hand, those in the bottom 40% account for only 0.2% of the wealth and 12.1% of the actual income.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \"Distribution
    Figure 9.11<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    While the graph is very well designed, it presents a great deal of information. For example, it shows \u201cwealth\u201d and \u201cincome,\u201d for several groups; however, these are related but different concepts. In a written publication, readers will have time to sit and analyze the graph, but in a speaking situa<\/span>t<\/em>ion,<\/em> audience members need to be able to understand the information in a graph very quickly.<\/span><\/p>\n

    \n

    Pie Graph<\/h3>\n

    Pie graphs <\/strong>are usually depicted as circles and are designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data; in other words, they show parts of or percentages of a whole. They should be simplified as much as possible without eliminating important information. As with other graphs, the sections of the pie need to be plotted proportionally. In the pie graph shown in Figure 9.12 (\u201cCauses of Concussions in Children\u201d), we see a clear and proportional chart that has been color-coded. Color-coding is useful when it\u2019s difficult to fit the explanations in the actual sections of the graph; in that case, you need to include a legend, or key, to indicate what the colors in the graph mean. In this graph, audience members can see very quickly that falls are the primary reason children receive concussions. However, the pie graph in Figure 9.13 (\u201cWorld Populations\u201d) is jumbled, illegible, confusing, and overwhelming in every way. The use of color coding doesn\u2019t help. Overall, this graph simply contains too much information and is more likely to confuse an audience than help them understand something.<\/p>\n

    \"Causes
    Figure 9.12<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \"World
    Figure 9.13<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
    \n

    Pie graph<\/strong><\/p>\n

    a graph designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    Pictograph<\/h3>\n

    Similar to bar graphs, pictographs <\/strong>use numbers and\/or sizes of iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts. If you were trying to show the output of oil from various countries through oil wells, each oil well representing ten million barrels a day, it might be hard for the audience to see the difference between a third of an oil well and a fourth of one, but that is a significant difference in amounts (3.3 million versus 2.5 million).<\/p>\n

    \n

    Pictograph<\/strong><\/p>\n

    a graph using iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    Graphs can present challenges in being effective but also in being ethical. To be both ethical and effective, you need a good understanding of what statistics mean, and you need to create or use graphs that show amounts clearly. If you were showing GPAs of freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students at your college, and the bottom number on the graph was 25 rather than 0.0, that would result in a visually bigger difference than what really exists (see Figure 9.14).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \"Misrepresentative
    Figure 9.14<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Diagrams<\/span><\/h2>\n

    Diagrams <\/strong>are drawings or sketches that outline and explain the parts of an object, process, or phenomenon that cannot be readily seen. Like graphs, diagrams can be considered a type of chart, as in the case of organizational charts and process-flow charts.<\/p>\n

    When you use a diagram, be sure to explain each part of the phenomenon, paying special attention to elements that are complicated or prone to misunderstanding. In the example shown in Figure 9.15 (\u201cThe Human Eye\u201d), you might wish to highlight that the light stimulus is reversed when it is processed through the brain or that the optic nerve is not a single stalk as many people think.<\/p>\n

    \n
    \"The
    Figure 9.15<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Maps<\/span><\/h2>\n

    Maps are extremely useful if the information is clear and limited. There are all kinds of maps, including population, weather, ocean current, political, and economic maps, so you should find the right kind for the purpose of your speech. Choose a map that emphasizes the information you need to deliver. The map shown in Figure 9.16 (\u201cAfrican Map with Nigerian Emphasis\u201d) is simple, showing clearly the geographic location of Nigeria. This can be extremely valuable for some audiences who might not be able to name and locate countries on the continent of Africa. The map also shows the relative size of Nigeria compared to its neighbors. Figure 9.17 (\u201cRhode Island Map\u201d) is a map of the state of Rhode Island, and it emphasizes the complicated configuration of islands and waterways that characterize this state\u2019s geography.<\/p>\n

    \"Map
    Figure 9.16<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n

     <\/p>\n

    \"Rhode
    Figure 9.17<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Photographs and Drawings<\/h2>\n

    Sometimes a photograph or a drawing is the best way to show an unfamiliar but important detail. Figure 9.19 (\u201cWigwam Photograph\u201d) is a photograph of a wigwam, a dwelling used by Native Americans in the North East. Audiences expect high quality in photographs now, and as with all presentation aids they should enhance the speech and not just \u201cbe there.\u201d It is common to put stock photographs on PowerPoint slides as \u201cclip art,\u201d but they should be relevant and not detract from the message of the slide.<\/p>\n

    \"Wigwam
    Figure 9.19<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Video or Audio Recordings<\/span><\/p>\n

    \n

    Another very useful type of presentation aid is a video or audio recording. Whether it is a short video from a website such as YouTube or Vimeo, a segment from a song, or a piece of a podcast, a well-chosen video or audio recording may be a good choice to enhance your speech. Imagine, for example, that you\u2019re giving a speech on how Lap-Band surgeries help people lose weight. One of the sections of your speech could explain how the lap band works, so you could easily show a forty-three-second video available on YouTube to demonstrate the part of the surgery. Maybe you could include a recording of a real patient explaining why they decided to get the lap band.<\/p>\n

    There is one major warning to using audio and video clips during a speech: do not forget that they are supposed to be aids to your speech, not the speech itself. In addition, be sure to avoid these five mistakes that speakers often make when using audio and video clips:<\/p>\n

    \n
      \n
    • Avoid choosing clips that are too long for the overall length of the speech. Your instructor can give you some guidelines for how long video and audio clips should be for the speeches in your class, if they are allowed (and make sure they are).<\/li>\n
    • Practice with the audio or video equipment prior to speaking. If you are unfamiliar with the equipment, you\u2019ll look foolish trying to figure out how it works. This fiddling around will not only take your audience out of your speech but also have a negative impact on your credibility. It also wastes valuable time. Finally, be sure that the speakers on the computer are on and at the right volume level.<\/li>\n
    • Cue the clip to the appropriate place prior to beginning your speech. We cannot tell you the number of times we\u2019ve seen students spend valuable speech time trying to find a clip on YouTube or a DVD. You need to make sure your clip is ready to go before you start speaking. Later in this chapter, we will look at using video links in slides.<\/li>\n
    • In addition to cuing the clip to the appropriate place, the browser window should be open and ready to go. If there are advertisements before the video, be sure to have the video cued to play after the ad. The audience should not have to sit through a commercial. There is a website called TubeChop that can allow you to cut a segment out of a YouTube video, then creating a new link. It has limitations but can be useful.<\/li>\n
    • The audience must be given context before a video or audio clip is played, specifically what the clip is and why it relates to the speech. At the same time, the video should not repeat what you have already said, but add to it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
      \n

      Objects or Models<\/h2>\n

      Objects and models are another form of presentation aid that can be very helpful in getting your audience to understand your message. Objects refer to anything you could hold up and talk about during your speech. If you\u2019re talking about the importance of not using plastic water bottles, you might hold up a plastic water bottle and a stainless steel water bottle as examples.<\/p>\n

      Models, on the other hand, are re-creations of physical objects that you cannot have readily available with you during a speech. If you\u2019re giving a speech on heart murmurs, you may be able to show how heart murmurs work by holding up a model of the human heart. As will be discussed in the section on handouts below, a speaker should not pass an object or model around during a speech. It is highly distracting.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      \n

      People and Animals<\/h2>\n

      The next category of presentation aids is people and animals. We can often use ourselves or other people to adequately demonstrate an idea during our speeches.<\/p>\n

      Animals as Presentation Aids<\/h3>\n

      When giving a speech on a topic relating to animals, it is often tempting to bring an animal to serve as your presentation aid. While this can sometimes add a very engaging dimension to the speech, it carries some serious risks that you need to consider.<\/p>\n

      The first risk is that animal behavior tends to be unpredictable. You may think this won\u2019t be a problem if your presentation aid animal is small enough to be kept confined throughout your speech\u2014for example, a goldfish in a bowl or a lizard or bird in a cage. However, even caged animals can be very distracting to your audience if they run about, chirp, or exhibit other agitated behavior. The chances are great that an animal will react to the stress of an unfamiliar situation by displaying behavior that does not contribute positively to your speech or to the cleanliness of the physical environment. Additionally, the animal\u2019s behavior may not only affect audience’s attention during your speech, but potentially during your classmates\u2019 speeches as well.<\/p>\n

      The second risk is that some audience members may respond negatively to a live animal. In addition to common fears and aversions to animals like snakes, spiders, and mice, many people have allergies to various animals. One of the authors had an experience where a student brought his six-foot yellow python to class for a speech. As a result, one of the other students refused to stay in the room because of her snake phobia (the instructor was not too comfortable either).<\/p>\n

      The third risk is that some locations may have regulations about bringing non-service animals onto the premises. If animals are allowed, the person bringing the animal may be required to bring a veterinary certificate or may be legally responsible for any damage caused by the animal.<\/p>\n

      For these reasons, before you decide to use an animal as a presentation aid, ask yourself if you could make your point equally well with a picture, model, diagram, or other representation of the animal in question.<\/p>\n

      Speaker as Presentation Aid<\/h2>\n

      Speakers can often use their own bodies to demonstrate facets of a speech. If your speech is about ballroom dancing or ballet, you might use your body to demonstrate the basic moves in the cha-cha or the five basic ballet positions.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      Other People as Presentation Aids<\/h3>\n

      In some cases, such as for a demonstration speech, you might want to ask someone else to serve as your presentation aid. You should arrange ahead of time for a person (or persons) to be an effective aid\u2014do not assume that an audience member will volunteer on the spot. If you plan to demonstrate how to immobilize a broken bone, your volunteer must know ahead of time that you will touch them as much as necessary to splint the break.<\/p>\n

      You must also make certain that they will arrive dressed presentably and that they will not draw attention away from your message through their appearance or behavior. The transaction between you and your human presentation aid must be appropriate, especially if you are going to demonstrate something like a dance step. In short, make sure your helper will know what is expected of them and consents to it.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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