{"id":98,"date":"2022-04-28T19:35:53","date_gmt":"2022-04-28T19:35:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/?post_type=chapter&p=98"},"modified":"2022-05-04T22:01:29","modified_gmt":"2022-05-04T22:01:29","slug":"98","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/chapter\/98\/","title":{"raw":"Walk, Talk, Cook, Eat: A Guide to Using Sources","rendered":"Walk, Talk, Cook, Eat: A Guide to Using Sources"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\nMarvin, a college student at Any University, sits down at his computer.<\/em>*<\/em>\u00a0He logs in to the \u201cOnline Professor,\u201d an interactive advice site for students. After setting up a chat, he begins tapping the keys.<\/em>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: Hi. I\u2019m a student in the physician assistant program. The major paper for my health and environment class is due in five weeks, and I need some advice. The professor says the paper has to be 6\u20138 pages, and I have to cite and document my sources.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Congratulations on getting started early! Tell me a bit about your assignment. What\u2019s the purpose? Who\u2019s it intended for?\r\n\r\nMarvin: Well, the professor said it should talk about a health problem caused by water pollution and suggest ways to solve it. We\u2019ve read some articles, plus my professor gave us statistics on groundwater contamination in different areas.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: \u00a0What\u2019s been most interesting so far?\r\n\r\nMarvin: I\u2019m amazed at how much water pollution there is. It seems like it would be healthier to drink bottled water, but the plastic bottles hurt the environment.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Who else might be interested in this?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: Lots of people are worried about bad water. I might even get questions about it from my clients once I finish my program.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: OK. So what information do you need to make a good recommendation?\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>h<\/em>inks<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>\u00a0a moment.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: I don\u2019t know much about the health problems caused by contaminated drinking water. Whether the tap water is safe depends on where you live, I guess. The professors talked about arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh, but what about the water in the U.S.? For my paper, maybe I should focus on a particular location? I also need to find out more about what companies do to make sure bottled water is pure.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Good! Now that you know what you need to learn, you can start looking for sources.\r\n\r\nMarvin: When my professors talk about sources, they usually mean books or articles about my topic. Is that what you mean?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Books and articles do make good sources, but you might think about\u00a0sources<\/strong>\u00a0<\/em>more generally as \u201cforms of meaning you use to make new meaning.\u201d It\u2019s like your bottled water. The water exists already in some location but is processed by the company before it goes to the consumer. Similarly, a source provides information and knowledge that you process to produce new meaning, which other people can then use to make their own meaning.\r\n\r\nA bit confused, Marvin scratches his head.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: I thought I knew what a source was, but now I\u2019m not so sure.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Think about it.\u00a0Sources of meaning<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0are literally every- where\u2014for example, your own observations or experiences, the content of other people\u2019s brains, visuals and graphics, experiment results, TV and radio broadcasts, and written texts. And, there are many ways to make new meaning from sources. You can give an oral presentation, design a web page, paint a picture, or, as in your case, write a paper.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nMarvin: I get it. But how do I decide which sources to use for my paper?\r\n
\r\n\r\nO-Prof: It depends on the meaning you want to make, which is why it\u2019s\u00a0so\u00a0<\/em>important to figure out the purpose of your paper and who will read it. You might think about using sources as\u00a0walking, talking, cooking, and eating.\u00a0<\/em>These aren\u2019t the only possible metaphors, but they do capture some important things about using sources.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Hey! I thought we were talking about writing!\r\n\r\nO-Prof: We are, but these metaphors can shed some light on writing with sources. Let\u2019s start with the first one:\u00a0walking.\u00a0<\/em>To use sources well, you first have to go where they are. What if you were writing an article on student clubs for the school newspaper? Where would you go for information?\r\n\r\nMarvin: I\u2019d probably walk down to the Student Activities office and get some brochures about student clubs. Then I\u2019d attend a few club meetings and maybe interview the club leaders and some members about their club activities.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: OK, so you\u2019d\u00a0walk\u00a0<\/em>to where you could find relevant information for your article. That\u2019s what I mean by\u00a0walking.\u00a0<\/em>You have to get to the sources you need.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Wait a minute. For the article on student clubs, maybe I could save some walking. Maybe the list of clubs and the club descriptions are on the Student Activities web page. That\u2019d save me a trip.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Yes, the Internet has cut down on the amount of physical walking you need to do to find sources. Before the Internet, you had to either travel to a source\u2019s physical location, or bring that source to your location. Think about your project on bottled water. To get information about the quality of a city\u2019s tap water in the 1950\u2019s, you would have had to figure out who\u2019d have that information, then call or write to request a copy or\u00a0walk\u00a0<\/em>to wherever the information was stored. Today, if you type \u201clocal water quality\u201d into Google, the Environmental Protection Agency page comes up as one of the first hits. Its home page links to water quality reports for local areas.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0p<\/em>a<\/em>us<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>\u00a0a second before responding, thinking he\u2019s found a good short cut for his paper.<\/em>\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: So can I just use Google or Bing to find sources?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Internet search engines can help you find sources, but they aren\u2019t always the best route to getting to a good source. Try entering the search term \u201cbottled water quality\u201d into Google, without quotation marks around the term. How many hits do you get?\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0typ<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0it<\/em>\u00a0i<\/em>n.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: 5,760,000. That\u2019s pretty much what I get whenever I do an Internet search. Too many results.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Which is one of the drawbacks of using only Internet search engines. The Internet may have cut down on the physical\u00a0walking\u00a0<\/em>needed to find good sources, but it\u2019s made up for the time savings by pointing you to more places than you could possibly go! But there are some ways you can narrow your search to get fewer, more focused results.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Yeah, I know. Sometimes I add extra words in and it helps weed down the hits.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: By combining search terms with certain words or symbols, you can control what the search engine looks for. If you put more than one term into a Google search box, the search engine will only give you sites that include both terms, since it uses the Boolean operator AND as the default for its search- es. If you put OR between two search terms, you\u2019ll end up getting even more results, because Google will look for all websites containing either of the terms. Using a minus sign in front of a term eliminates things you\u2019re not interested in. It\u2019s the Google equivalent of the Boolean operator NOT. Try entering bottled water quality health -teeth.\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0typ<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0in<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>d<\/em>s,<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>ememb<\/em>ering<\/em>\u00a0su<\/em>dd<\/em>enly<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>ha<\/em>t<\/em>\u00a0he<\/em>\u00a0has<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>o<\/em>\u00a0make<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>pp<\/em>o<\/em>int<\/em>m<\/em>ent<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>i<\/em>t<\/em>h<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0d<\/em>entist.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: 329,000 hits.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nO-Prof: Still a lot. You can also put quotation marks around groups of words and the search engine will look only for sites that contain all of those words in the exact order you\u2019ve given. And you can combine this strategy with the other ways of limiting your search. Try \u201cbottled water quality\u201d (in quota- tion marks) health teeth.\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: Only 333. That\u2019s more like it.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Yes, but you don\u2019t want to narrow it so far that you miss use- ful sources. You have to play around with your search terms to get to what you need. A bigger problem with Internet search engines, though, is that they won\u2019t necessarily lead you to the sources considered most valuable for college writing.\r\n\r\nMarvin: My professor said something about using peer-reviewed articles in scholarly journals.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Professors will often want you to use such sources. Articles in scholarly journals are written by experts; and if a journal\u2019s\u00a0peer-reviewed<\/strong><\/em>, its articles have been screened by other experts (the authors\u2019 peers) before being published.\r\n\r\nMarvin: So that would make peer-reviewed articles pretty reliable.\r\n\r\nWhere do I find them?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Google\u2019s got a specialized search engine, Google Scholar, that will search for scholarly articles that might be useful (www. googlescholar.com). But often the best place is the college library\u2019s http:\/\/www. googlescholar.com bibliographic databases. A database is a collection of related data, usually electronic, set up for easy access to items in the collection. Library bibliographic databases contain ar- ticles from newspapers, magazines, scholarly journals, and other publications. They can be very large, but they\u2019re a lot smaller than the whole Internet, and they generally contain reliable information. The Internet, on the other hand, con- tains both good and bad information.\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0l<\/em>oo<\/em>ks<\/em>\u00a0do<\/em>wn<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>t<\/em>\u00a0h<\/em>is<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>ee<\/em>t.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: Sounds sort of like looking for shoes. When I was buying my running shoes, I went to a specialty running shop instead of a regular shoe store. The specialty shop had all the brands I\u00a0was looking for, and I didn\u2019t have to weed through sandals and dress shoes. Is that kind of like a library\u2019s bibliographic database?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Exactly. But remember,\u00a0a database search engine<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0can only find what\u2019s actually in the database. If you\u2019re looking for information on drinking water, you won\u2019t find much in a database full of art history publications. The library has some subject guides that can tell you the best databases to use for your topic.\r\n\r\nMarvin: What about books? I did check out the library catalog and found a couple of good books on my topic.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Yes, don\u2019t forget about books. You generally have to walk physically to get information that\u2019s only in print form, or have someone else bring it to you. Even though Google has now scanned many of the world\u2019s books into its database, they won\u2019t give you access to the entire book if the book is still under copyright.\r\n\r\nMarvin: So I\u2019m back to real walking again.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Yes. Don\u2019t forget to ask for help when you\u2019re looking around for sources. Reference librarians make very good guides; it\u2019s their job to keep up on where various kinds of knowledge are located and help people find that knowledge. Professors also make good guides, but they\u2019re most familiar with where to find knowledge in their own fields.\r\n\r\nMarvin: I could ask my health and environment professor for help, of course, and maybe my geology and chemistry professors. I\u2019m guessing my music teacher would be less helpful.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: One last hint about finding sources. If you find an article or book that\u2019s helpful for your paper, look at its reference list. There might be some useful sources listed there.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Thanks, Professor. I think I can do some good\u00a0walking\u00a0<\/em>now.\r\n\r\nWhat about that\u00a0talking\u00a0<\/em>metaphor?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Before we move on, there\u2019s an important aspect of\u00a0walking<\/em>\u00a0with sources that you need to be aware of. In college writing, if you use a source in a paper, you\u2019re expected to let the reader know exactly how to find that source as well. Providing this\u00a0\u201csource address\u201d information for your sources is known as\u00a0documenting your sources<\/em>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: What do you mean by a \u201csource address\u201d?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: It\u2019s directions for finding the source. A mailing address tells you how to find a person: the house number, street, city, state, and zip code. To help your readers find your sources, it\u2019s customary to give them the name of the author; the title of the book or article or website; and other information such as date, location of publication, publisher, even the data- base in which a source is located. Or, if it\u2019s a website, you might give the name of the site and\/or the date on which you accessed it. Source documentation can be complicated, because the necessary source address information differs for different types of sources (e.g., books vs. journal articles, electronic vs. print). Additionally, different disciplines (e.g., history, philosophy, psychology, literature, etc.) use different \u201caddress\u201d formats. Eventually, you\u2019ll become familiar with the documentation conventions for your own academic ma- jor, but source documentation takes a lot of practice. In the meantime, your teachers and various writing handbooks can provide instructions on what information you\u2019ll need.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Do I really need to include all that information? A lot of times, the sources I use are readings my teachers have assigned, so they already know where to find them.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Your teachers don\u2019t always know where all your sources are from, and they also want you to get into the habit of source documentation. And what about your other readers? If they\u2019re deeply interested in your topic, they may want to find more information than you\u2019ve included in your paper. Your source documentation allows them to find the original source. And there are other reasons for documenting sources. It can help readers understand your own position on a topic, because they can see which authors you agree with and which you don\u2019t. It also shows readers you\u2019ve taken time to investigate your topic and aren\u2019t just writing off the top of your head. If readers see that your ideas are based on trustworthy sources, they\u2019re more likely to trust what you say.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nMarvin: Like, if I used a university or government website on bottled water quality, they\u2019d trust me more than if I just used a bot- tled water company website.\r\n
\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Yes. But to dig deeper into the question of trust, let\u2019s move on to a second metaphor:\u00a0talking<\/em>. Although the metaphor of\u00a0walking\u00a0<\/em>is useful for understanding how to find and document sources, it can give the impression that sources are separate, inert, and neutral things, waiting to be snatched up like gold nuggets and plugged into your writing. In reality, sources are parts of overlapping knowledge networks that connect meanings and the people that make and use them. Knowledge networks are always in flux, since people are always making new meaning. Let\u2019s go back to your health and environment project. Refresh my memory. What kinds of questions do you need answers to before you can write your paper?\r\n\r\nMarvin: Well, I need to know if bottled water is truly healthier, like the beverage companies claim. Or would I be just as well off drinking tap water?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: \u00a0To answer this question, you\u2019ll want to find out who\u2019s\u00a0talking<\/em>\u00a0about these issues. As Kenneth Burke put it, you can think of sources as voices in an ongoing conversation about the world:\r\n\r\nImagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the embarrassment or gratification of your opponent, depending upon the quality of your ally\u2019s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe authors of texts aren\u2019t speaking aloud, of course, but they\u2019re making written statements that others can \u201clisten\u201d and \u201crespond\u201d to. Knowing which texts you can trust means understanding which authors you can trust.\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: How do I figure that out?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: It helps to know who the authors are. What they\u2019re saying. Where, when, and to whom they\u2019re saying it. And what their purposes are. Imagine the world as divided into many parlors like the one Kenneth Burke described. You\u2019d want to go to the parlors where people who really know something are\u00a0talking\u00a0<\/em>about the topics you\u2019re interested in. Let\u2019s go back to your initial Google search for a minute. Did any Wikipedia articles come up for bottled water?\r\n\r\nMarvin: Yeah, and I took a quick look at one of them. But some of my professors say I shouldn\u2019t use Wikipedia.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: That\u2019s because the quality of information in Wikipedia var- ies. It\u2019s monitored by volunteer writers and editors rather than experts, so you should double-check information you find in Wikipedia with other sources. But Wikipedia articles are often good places to get background info and good places to connect with more reliable sources. Did anything in the Wikipedia article seem useful for finding sources on bottled water?\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0clicks<\/em>\u00a0ba<\/em>c<\/em>k<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>o<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0W<\/em>i<\/em>k<\/em>ip<\/em>ed<\/em>i<\/em>a<\/em>\u00a0sit<\/em>e.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: It does mention that the National Resources Defense Council and the Drinking Water Research Foundation have done some studies on the health effects of bottled water (\u201cBottled Water\u201d).\r\n\r\nO-Prof: So, you could go to the websites for these organizations to find out more about the studies. They might even have links to the full reports of these studies, as well as other resources on your topic. Who else might have something to say about the healthfulness of bottled and tap water?\r\n\r\nMarvin: Maybe doctors and other health professionals? But I don\u2019t know any I could ask.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nO-Prof: You can look in the library\u2019s subject guides or ask the\u00a0librarian\u00a0about databases for health professionals. The Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) database is a good one. Are you logged in to the library? Can you try that one?\r\n
\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0logs<\/em>\u00a0i<\/em>n,<\/em>\u00a0fin<\/em>d<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0da<\/em>t<\/em>abase,<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>d<\/em>\u00a0typ<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0in<\/em>\u00a0\u201c<\/em>bo<\/em>ttl<\/em>ed<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>a<\/em>ter<\/em>\u00a0AND health.\u201d<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: Here\u2019s an article called \u201cHealth Risks and Benefits of Bottled Water.\u201d It\u2019s in the journal\u00a0Primary Care Clinical Office Practice\u00a0<\/em>(Napier and Kodner).\r\n\r\nO-Prof: If that\u2019s a peer-reviewed journal, it might be a good source for your paper.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Here\u2019s another one: \u201cSocio-Demographic Features and Fluoride Technologies Contributing to Higher Fluorosis Scores in Permanent Teeth of Canadian Children\u201d (Maupome et al.). That one sounds pretty technical.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: And pretty narrow, too. When you start using sources writ- ten by experts, you move beyond the huge porch of public discourse, where everyone\u00a0talks\u00a0<\/em>about all questions on a general level, into some smaller conversational parlors, where groups of specialists\u00a0talk\u00a0<\/em>about more narrow questions in greater depth. You generally find more detailed and trust- worthy knowledge in these smaller parlors. But sometimes the conversation may be too narrow for your needs and difficult to understand because it\u2019s experts\u00a0talking\u00a0<\/em>to experts.\r\n\r\nWa<\/em>y<\/em>\u00a0ahead<\/em>\u00a0o<\/em>f<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0pr<\/em>o<\/em>f<\/em>e<\/em>ss<\/em>o<\/em>r,<\/em>\u00a0M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u2019<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>lr<\/em>ead<\/em>y<\/em>\u00a0st<\/em>a<\/em>rt<\/em>ed<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>ead<\/em>ing<\/em>\u00a0abo<\/em>ut<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0hea<\/em>lt<\/em>h<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>i<\/em>sks<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>d<\/em>\u00a0benefi<\/em>ts<\/em>\u00a0o<\/em>f<\/em>\u00a0bo<\/em>ttl<\/em>ed<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>a<\/em>ter.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: Here\u2019s something confusing. The summary of this article on risks and benefits of bottled water says tap water is fine if you\u2019re in a location where there\u2019s good water. Then it says that you should use bottled water if the purity of your water source is in question. So which is better, tap or bottled?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: As you read more sources, you begin to realize there\u2019s not always a simple answer to questions. As the CINAHL article points out, the answer depends on whether your tap water is\u00a0pure enough to drink. Not everyone agrees on the answers, either. When you\u2019re advising your future clients (or in this case, writing your paper), you\u2019ll need to \u201clisten\u201d to what different people who\u00a0talk\u00a0<\/em>about the healthfulness of bottled and tap water have to say. Then you\u2019ll be equipped to make your own \u00a0recommendation.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: Is that when I start writing?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: You\u2019ve really been writing all along. Asking questions and gathering ideas from sources is all part of the process. As we think about the actual drafting, though, it\u2019s helpful to move on to that third metaphor:\u00a0cooking.\u00a0<\/em>When you\u00a0cook<\/em>\u00a0with sources, you process them in new ways. Cooking, like writing, involves a lot of decisions. For instance, you might decide to combine ingredients in a way that keeps the full flavor and character of each ingredient.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Kind of like chili cheese fries? I can taste the flavor of the chili, the cheese, and the fries separately.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Yes. But other food preparation processes can change the character of the various ingredients. You probably wouldn\u2019t enjoy gobbling down a stick of butter, two raw eggs, a cup of flour, or a cup of sugar (well, maybe the sugar!). But if you mix these ingredients and expose them to a 375-degree tem- perature, chemical reactions transform them into something good to eat, like a cake.\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>ea<\/em>c<\/em>he<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0int<\/em>o<\/em>\u00a0h<\/em>is<\/em>\u00a0ba<\/em>c<\/em>k<\/em>p<\/em>a<\/em>c<\/em>k<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>d<\/em>\u00a0pulls<\/em>\u00a0o<\/em>ut<\/em>\u00a0a snack.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: You\u2019re making me hungry. But what do chili cheese fries and cakes have to do with writing?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Sometimes, you might use verbatim quotations from your sources, as if you were throwing walnuts whole into a sal- ad. The reader will definitely \u201ctaste\u201d your original source. Other times, you might paraphrase ideas and combine them into an intricate argument. The flavor of the original source might be more subtle in the latter case, with only your source documentation indicating where your ideas came from. In some ways, the writing assignments your professors give you are like recipes. As an apprentice writing\u00a0cook,\u00a0<\/em>you should\u00a0analyze your assignments to determine what \u201cingredients\u201d (sources) to use, what \u201ccooking processes\u201d to follow, and what the final \u201cdish\u201d (paper) should look like. Let\u2019s try a few sample assignments. Here\u2019s one:\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nAssig<\/strong>nment 1: Critique\u00a0<\/strong>(given in a human development course)\r\n\r\nWe\u2019ve read and studied Freud\u2019s theory of how the human psyche develops; now it\u2019s time to evaluate the theory. Read at least two articles that critique Freud\u2019s theory, chosen from the list I provided in class. Then, write an essay discussing the strengths and weaknesses of Freud\u2019s theory.\r\n\r\nAssume you\u2019re a student in this course. Given this assignment, how would you describe the required ingredients, processes, and product?\r\n\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>h<\/em>inks<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>\u00a0a minute, while chewing and swallowing a mouthful of apple.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: Let\u2019s see if I can break it down:\r\n\r\nIngredients<\/strong>:\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 everything we\u2019ve read about Freud\u2019s theory\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 our class discussions about the theory\r\n\r\n\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 two articles of my choice taken from the list provided by the instructor\r\n\r\nProcesses<\/strong>: I have to read those two articles to see their criticisms of Freud\u2019s theory. I can also review my notes from class, since we discussed various critiques. I have to think about what aspects of Freud\u2019s theory explain human development well, and where the theory falls short\u2014like in class, we discussed how Freud\u2019s theory reduces human development to sexuality alone.\r\n\r\nProduct<\/strong>: The final essay needs to include both strengths and weaknesses of Freud\u2019s theory. The professor didn\u2019t specifically say this, but it\u2019s also clear I need to incorporate some ideas from the two articles I read\u2014otherwise why would she have assigned those articles?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nO-Prof: Good. How about this one?\r\n
\r\n\r\nAssig<\/strong>nment 2: Business Plan\u00a0<\/strong>(given in an entrepreneurship course)\r\n\r\nAs your major project for this course, your group will develop a business plan for a student-run business that meets some need on this campus. Be sure to include all aspects of a business plan. During the last few weeks of class, each group will present the plan to the class, using appropriate visuals.\r\n\r\nMarvin: I\u2019ll give it a try.\r\n\r\nIngredients<\/strong>: Hmm . . . It\u2019s hard to tell the sources I\u2019ll need. Obviously, whatever the teacher teaches us about business plans in the course will be important\u2014hope she goes into detail about this and provides examples. What if she doesn\u2019t? What sources could my group use? Our textbook has a chap- ter on business plans that will probably help, and maybe we can go to the library and look for books about writing business plans. Some sample business plans would be helpful\u2014I wonder if the Center for Small Business Support on our cam- pus would have some?\r\n\r\nProcesses<\/strong>: Well, maybe we could have each member of the group look for sources about business plans and then meet together to discuss what we need to do, or talk online. Don\u2019t know how we\u2019ll break down the writing\u2014maybe we could divide up the various sections of the plan, or discuss each section together, then someone could write it up?\r\n\r\nProduct<\/strong>: It\u2019s clear that we have to include all the information that business owners put in a business plan, and we\u2019ll have to follow the organization of a typical plan. But we can\u2019t tell exactly what that organization should be until we\u2019ve done some research.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Here\u2019s one last assignment to try out.\r\n\r\nAssig<\/strong>nment 3: Research Paper\u00a0<\/strong>(given in a health and environment course)\r\n\r\nWrite a 6\u20138-page paper in which you explain a health prob- lem related to water pollution (e.g., arsenic poisoning, gastrointestinal illness, skin disease, etc.). Recommend a potential\u00a0way or ways this health problem might be addressed. Be sure to cite and document the sources you use for your paper.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: Oho, trick question! That one sounds familiar.\r\n\r\nIngredients<\/strong>: No specific guidance here, except that sources have to relate to water pollution and health. I\u2019ve already de- cided I\u2019m interested in how bottled water might help with health where there\u2019s water pollution. I\u2019ll have to pick a health problem and find sources about how water pollution can cause that problem. Gastrointestinal illness sounds promis- ing. I\u2019ll ask the reference librarian where I\u2019d be likely to find good articles about water pollution, bottled water, and gas- trointestinal illness.\r\n\r\nProcess<\/strong>: There\u2019s not very specific information here about what process to use, but our conversation\u2019s given me some ideas. I\u2019ll use scholarly articles to find the connection be- tween water pollution and gastrointestinal problems, and whether bottled water could prevent those problems.\r\n\r\nProduct<\/strong>: Obviously, my paper will explain the connection between water and gastrointestinal health. It\u2019ll evaluate whether bottled water provides a good option in places where the water\u2019s polluted, then give a recommendation about what people should do. The professor did say I should address any objections readers might raise\u2014for instance, bottled water may turn out to be a good option, but it\u2019s a lot more expen- sive than tap water. Finally, I\u2019ll need to provide in-text cita- tions and document my sources in a reference list.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: You\u2019re on your way. Think for a minute about these three assignments. Did you notice that the \u201crecipes\u201d varied in their specificity?\r\n\r\nMarvin: Yeah. The first assignment gave me very specific information about exactly what source \u201cingredients\u201d to use. But in the second and third assignments, I had to figure it out on my own. And the processes varied, too. For the business plan, the groups will use sources to figure out how to organize the plan, but the actual content will be drawn from their own ideas for their business and any market research they do. But in the third assignment\u2014my own assignment\u2014I\u2019ll have to use content from my sources to support my recommendation.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nO-Prof: Different professors provide different levels of specificity in their writing assignments. If you have trouble figuring out the \u201crecipe,\u201d ask the professor for more information.\r\n
\r\n\r\nMarvin: Sometimes it can be really frustrating not to have enough information. Last semester, I sat around being frustrated and put off doing an assignment as long as possible, then rushed to finish it. I didn\u2019t do very well on the rough draft, but then I met with my professor and talked to him. Also, the class read each other\u2019s papers. Getting feedback and looking at what other students had done gave me some new ideas for my final draft.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: When it comes to \u201ccooking with sources,\u201d no one expects you to be an executive chef the first day you get to college. Over time, you\u2019ll become more expert at writing with sourc- es, more able to choose and use sources on your own. You\u2019ll probably need less guidance for writing in your senior year than in your freshman year. Which brings me to the last metaphor for using sources.\r\n\r\nMarvin:\u00a0Eating,\u00a0<\/em>right?\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Good memory. In fact, this last metaphor is about memory, which is how sources become a part of who you are. You\u2019ve probably heard the expression, \u201cyou are what you eat.\u201d When you\u00a0eat\u00a0<\/em>sources\u2014that is, think about things, experiment, read, write, talk to others\u2014you yourself change. What you learn stays with you.\r\n\r\nMarvin: Not always. It\u2019s hard for me to remember the things I learn in class until the final exam, not to mention after the class is over.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Of course. We all forget a lot of the things we learn, espe- cially those we seldom or never use again; but what you learn and use over a long period of time will affect you deeply and shape the way you see the world. Take a look at this quote from Mark Twain in\u00a0Life on the Mississippi<\/em>, where the narrator\u2019s talking about his apprenticeship as a steamboat pi- lot. When he first began his apprenticeship, the Mississippi River looked the same as any other river. But after he made many long trips up and down it, with the captain and others explaining\u00a0things along the way, he began to see it in all its complexity.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nThe face of the water, in time, became a wonderful book\u2014a book that was a dead language to the uneducated passenger, but which told its mind to me without reserve, delivering its most cherished secrets as clearly as if it uttered them with a voice. (77\u201378)\r\n\r\nEventually, the narrator could identify each of the river\u2019s bends, knew how its currents were running, and could estimate how deep it was just by looking at the surface. It was the same river, but he was a different man. Your bottled water project isn\u2019t as involved as learning to pilot a steamship. But once you start reading your sources, your experience of bottled water will shift. It\u2019ll still be the same water you used to drink, but it won\u2019t be the same you.\r\n\r\nMarvin: I can sort of see that already. I\u2019ve learned a lot about anatomy and physiology in the physician assistant program. Now, when I see a soccer player, I think about how the shin guard is protecting her tibia, not her shin. If I see someone with yellowish eyeballs, I think about bilirubin levels. And I always read the health section of the newspaper first.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Right. And a journalism major, who takes courses on beat reporting and feature writing, thinks about what will make a good story. A geology major does field work, looks at maps, learns about geological history, and sees rocks everywhere. Over time, through much exposure to a field and practice in it, a person\u2019s identity gradually becomes intertwined with his or her profession. Not entirely, of course. All of us are many things. A doctor may have an interest in calligraphy. A business manager might study poetry in her spare time. In both work and leisure activities, you\u2019ll keep on learning and making meaning from sources like other people, writing, books, websites, videos, articles, and your own experience. College is about learning\u00a0how\u00a0<\/em>to make meaning. Learn how to\u00a0walk<\/em>\u00a0(find the sources you need);\u00a0talk\u00a0<\/em>(converse with source authors);\u00a0cook\u00a0<\/em>(integrate sources to make new meaning); and\u00a0eat\u00a0<\/em>(allow sources to change your life). You won\u2019t ever finish using sources to make meaning\u2014not in your health and environment course, not while you\u2019re in college, not even after you\u2019ve been working and living for a long time.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nM<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0gl<\/em>a<\/em>nc<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>t<\/em>\u00a0h<\/em>is<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>a<\/em>tc<\/em>h.<\/em>\r\n\r\nMarvin: Speaking of time, I should probably grab some dinner before the cafeteria closes. Thanks, Professor, for all your help.\r\n\r\nO-Prof: Good luck with your paper, and with the rest of your writing life.\r\n\r\nLicenses and Attributions<\/strong>\r\n\r\nCC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL\r\n\r\nComposing Ourselves and Our World,\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0Provided by: the authors. License:\u00a0Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)<\/a>\r\n\r\nCC LICENSED CONTENT INCLUDED\r\n\r\nThis chapter contains an adaptation of\u00a0Walk, Talk, Cook, Eat: A Guide to Using Sources<\/a>.\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0Provided by: Cynthia R. Haller. License: This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License.","rendered":"
\n

Marvin, a college student at Any University, sits down at his computer.<\/em>*<\/em>\u00a0He logs in to the \u201cOnline Professor,\u201d an interactive advice site for students. After setting up a chat, he begins tapping the keys.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Marvin: Hi. I\u2019m a student in the physician assistant program. The major paper for my health and environment class is due in five weeks, and I need some advice. The professor says the paper has to be 6\u20138 pages, and I have to cite and document my sources.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Congratulations on getting started early! Tell me a bit about your assignment. What\u2019s the purpose? Who\u2019s it intended for?<\/p>\n

Marvin: Well, the professor said it should talk about a health problem caused by water pollution and suggest ways to solve it. We\u2019ve read some articles, plus my professor gave us statistics on groundwater contamination in different areas.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: \u00a0What\u2019s been most interesting so far?<\/p>\n

Marvin: I\u2019m amazed at how much water pollution there is. It seems like it would be healthier to drink bottled water, but the plastic bottles hurt the environment.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Who else might be interested in this?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Marvin: Lots of people are worried about bad water. I might even get questions about it from my clients once I finish my program.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: OK. So what information do you need to make a good recommendation?<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>h<\/em>inks<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>\u00a0a moment.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: I don\u2019t know much about the health problems caused by contaminated drinking water. Whether the tap water is safe depends on where you live, I guess. The professors talked about arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh, but what about the water in the U.S.? For my paper, maybe I should focus on a particular location? I also need to find out more about what companies do to make sure bottled water is pure.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Good! Now that you know what you need to learn, you can start looking for sources.<\/p>\n

Marvin: When my professors talk about sources, they usually mean books or articles about my topic. Is that what you mean?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Books and articles do make good sources, but you might think about\u00a0sources<\/strong>\u00a0<\/em>more generally as \u201cforms of meaning you use to make new meaning.\u201d It\u2019s like your bottled water. The water exists already in some location but is processed by the company before it goes to the consumer. Similarly, a source provides information and knowledge that you process to produce new meaning, which other people can then use to make their own meaning.<\/p>\n

A bit confused, Marvin scratches his head.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: I thought I knew what a source was, but now I\u2019m not so sure.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Think about it.\u00a0Sources of meaning<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0are literally every- where\u2014for example, your own observations or experiences, the content of other people\u2019s brains, visuals and graphics, experiment results, TV and radio broadcasts, and written texts. And, there are many ways to make new meaning from sources. You can give an oral presentation, design a web page, paint a picture, or, as in your case, write a paper.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Marvin: I get it. But how do I decide which sources to use for my paper?<\/p>\n

\n

O-Prof: It depends on the meaning you want to make, which is why it\u2019s\u00a0so\u00a0<\/em>important to figure out the purpose of your paper and who will read it. You might think about using sources as\u00a0walking, talking, cooking, and eating.\u00a0<\/em>These aren\u2019t the only possible metaphors, but they do capture some important things about using sources.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Hey! I thought we were talking about writing!<\/p>\n

O-Prof: We are, but these metaphors can shed some light on writing with sources. Let\u2019s start with the first one:\u00a0walking.\u00a0<\/em>To use sources well, you first have to go where they are. What if you were writing an article on student clubs for the school newspaper? Where would you go for information?<\/p>\n

Marvin: I\u2019d probably walk down to the Student Activities office and get some brochures about student clubs. Then I\u2019d attend a few club meetings and maybe interview the club leaders and some members about their club activities.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: OK, so you\u2019d\u00a0walk\u00a0<\/em>to where you could find relevant information for your article. That\u2019s what I mean by\u00a0walking.\u00a0<\/em>You have to get to the sources you need.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Wait a minute. For the article on student clubs, maybe I could save some walking. Maybe the list of clubs and the club descriptions are on the Student Activities web page. That\u2019d save me a trip.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Yes, the Internet has cut down on the amount of physical walking you need to do to find sources. Before the Internet, you had to either travel to a source\u2019s physical location, or bring that source to your location. Think about your project on bottled water. To get information about the quality of a city\u2019s tap water in the 1950\u2019s, you would have had to figure out who\u2019d have that information, then call or write to request a copy or\u00a0walk\u00a0<\/em>to wherever the information was stored. Today, if you type \u201clocal water quality\u201d into Google, the Environmental Protection Agency page comes up as one of the first hits. Its home page links to water quality reports for local areas.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0p<\/em>a<\/em>us<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>\u00a0a second before responding, thinking he\u2019s found a good short cut for his paper.<\/em><\/p>\n

\n

Marvin: So can I just use Google or Bing to find sources?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Internet search engines can help you find sources, but they aren\u2019t always the best route to getting to a good source. Try entering the search term \u201cbottled water quality\u201d into Google, without quotation marks around the term. How many hits do you get?<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0typ<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0it<\/em>\u00a0i<\/em>n.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: 5,760,000. That\u2019s pretty much what I get whenever I do an Internet search. Too many results.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Which is one of the drawbacks of using only Internet search engines. The Internet may have cut down on the physical\u00a0walking\u00a0<\/em>needed to find good sources, but it\u2019s made up for the time savings by pointing you to more places than you could possibly go! But there are some ways you can narrow your search to get fewer, more focused results.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Yeah, I know. Sometimes I add extra words in and it helps weed down the hits.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: By combining search terms with certain words or symbols, you can control what the search engine looks for. If you put more than one term into a Google search box, the search engine will only give you sites that include both terms, since it uses the Boolean operator AND as the default for its search- es. If you put OR between two search terms, you\u2019ll end up getting even more results, because Google will look for all websites containing either of the terms. Using a minus sign in front of a term eliminates things you\u2019re not interested in. It\u2019s the Google equivalent of the Boolean operator NOT. Try entering bottled water quality health -teeth.<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0typ<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0in<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>d<\/em>s,<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>ememb<\/em>ering<\/em>\u00a0su<\/em>dd<\/em>enly<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>ha<\/em>t<\/em>\u00a0he<\/em>\u00a0has<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>o<\/em>\u00a0make<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>pp<\/em>o<\/em>int<\/em>m<\/em>ent<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>i<\/em>t<\/em>h<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0d<\/em>entist.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: 329,000 hits.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

O-Prof: Still a lot. You can also put quotation marks around groups of words and the search engine will look only for sites that contain all of those words in the exact order you\u2019ve given. And you can combine this strategy with the other ways of limiting your search. Try \u201cbottled water quality\u201d (in quota- tion marks) health teeth.<\/p>\n

\n

Marvin: Only 333. That\u2019s more like it.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Yes, but you don\u2019t want to narrow it so far that you miss use- ful sources. You have to play around with your search terms to get to what you need. A bigger problem with Internet search engines, though, is that they won\u2019t necessarily lead you to the sources considered most valuable for college writing.<\/p>\n

Marvin: My professor said something about using peer-reviewed articles in scholarly journals.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Professors will often want you to use such sources. Articles in scholarly journals are written by experts; and if a journal\u2019s\u00a0peer-reviewed<\/strong><\/em>, its articles have been screened by other experts (the authors\u2019 peers) before being published.<\/p>\n

Marvin: So that would make peer-reviewed articles pretty reliable.<\/p>\n

Where do I find them?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Google\u2019s got a specialized search engine, Google Scholar, that will search for scholarly articles that might be useful (www. googlescholar.com). But often the best place is the college library\u2019s http:\/\/www. googlescholar.com bibliographic databases. A database is a collection of related data, usually electronic, set up for easy access to items in the collection. Library bibliographic databases contain ar- ticles from newspapers, magazines, scholarly journals, and other publications. They can be very large, but they\u2019re a lot smaller than the whole Internet, and they generally contain reliable information. The Internet, on the other hand, con- tains both good and bad information.<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0l<\/em>oo<\/em>ks<\/em>\u00a0do<\/em>wn<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>t<\/em>\u00a0h<\/em>is<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>ee<\/em>t.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: Sounds sort of like looking for shoes. When I was buying my running shoes, I went to a specialty running shop instead of a regular shoe store. The specialty shop had all the brands I\u00a0was looking for, and I didn\u2019t have to weed through sandals and dress shoes. Is that kind of like a library\u2019s bibliographic database?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

O-Prof: Exactly. But remember,\u00a0a database search engine<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0can only find what\u2019s actually in the database. If you\u2019re looking for information on drinking water, you won\u2019t find much in a database full of art history publications. The library has some subject guides that can tell you the best databases to use for your topic.<\/p>\n

Marvin: What about books? I did check out the library catalog and found a couple of good books on my topic.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Yes, don\u2019t forget about books. You generally have to walk physically to get information that\u2019s only in print form, or have someone else bring it to you. Even though Google has now scanned many of the world\u2019s books into its database, they won\u2019t give you access to the entire book if the book is still under copyright.<\/p>\n

Marvin: So I\u2019m back to real walking again.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Yes. Don\u2019t forget to ask for help when you\u2019re looking around for sources. Reference librarians make very good guides; it\u2019s their job to keep up on where various kinds of knowledge are located and help people find that knowledge. Professors also make good guides, but they\u2019re most familiar with where to find knowledge in their own fields.<\/p>\n

Marvin: I could ask my health and environment professor for help, of course, and maybe my geology and chemistry professors. I\u2019m guessing my music teacher would be less helpful.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: One last hint about finding sources. If you find an article or book that\u2019s helpful for your paper, look at its reference list. There might be some useful sources listed there.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Thanks, Professor. I think I can do some good\u00a0walking\u00a0<\/em>now.<\/p>\n

What about that\u00a0talking\u00a0<\/em>metaphor?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Before we move on, there\u2019s an important aspect of\u00a0walking<\/em>\u00a0with sources that you need to be aware of. In college writing, if you use a source in a paper, you\u2019re expected to let the reader know exactly how to find that source as well. Providing this\u00a0\u201csource address\u201d information for your sources is known as\u00a0documenting your sources<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Marvin: What do you mean by a \u201csource address\u201d?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: It\u2019s directions for finding the source. A mailing address tells you how to find a person: the house number, street, city, state, and zip code. To help your readers find your sources, it\u2019s customary to give them the name of the author; the title of the book or article or website; and other information such as date, location of publication, publisher, even the data- base in which a source is located. Or, if it\u2019s a website, you might give the name of the site and\/or the date on which you accessed it. Source documentation can be complicated, because the necessary source address information differs for different types of sources (e.g., books vs. journal articles, electronic vs. print). Additionally, different disciplines (e.g., history, philosophy, psychology, literature, etc.) use different \u201caddress\u201d formats. Eventually, you\u2019ll become familiar with the documentation conventions for your own academic ma- jor, but source documentation takes a lot of practice. In the meantime, your teachers and various writing handbooks can provide instructions on what information you\u2019ll need.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Do I really need to include all that information? A lot of times, the sources I use are readings my teachers have assigned, so they already know where to find them.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Your teachers don\u2019t always know where all your sources are from, and they also want you to get into the habit of source documentation. And what about your other readers? If they\u2019re deeply interested in your topic, they may want to find more information than you\u2019ve included in your paper. Your source documentation allows them to find the original source. And there are other reasons for documenting sources. It can help readers understand your own position on a topic, because they can see which authors you agree with and which you don\u2019t. It also shows readers you\u2019ve taken time to investigate your topic and aren\u2019t just writing off the top of your head. If readers see that your ideas are based on trustworthy sources, they\u2019re more likely to trust what you say.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Marvin: Like, if I used a university or government website on bottled water quality, they\u2019d trust me more than if I just used a bot- tled water company website.<\/p>\n

\n

O-Prof: Yes. But to dig deeper into the question of trust, let\u2019s move on to a second metaphor:\u00a0talking<\/em>. Although the metaphor of\u00a0walking\u00a0<\/em>is useful for understanding how to find and document sources, it can give the impression that sources are separate, inert, and neutral things, waiting to be snatched up like gold nuggets and plugged into your writing. In reality, sources are parts of overlapping knowledge networks that connect meanings and the people that make and use them. Knowledge networks are always in flux, since people are always making new meaning. Let\u2019s go back to your health and environment project. Refresh my memory. What kinds of questions do you need answers to before you can write your paper?<\/p>\n

Marvin: Well, I need to know if bottled water is truly healthier, like the beverage companies claim. Or would I be just as well off drinking tap water?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: \u00a0To answer this question, you\u2019ll want to find out who\u2019s\u00a0talking<\/em>\u00a0about these issues. As Kenneth Burke put it, you can think of sources as voices in an ongoing conversation about the world:<\/p>\n

Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the embarrassment or gratification of your opponent, depending upon the quality of your ally\u2019s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The authors of texts aren\u2019t speaking aloud, of course, but they\u2019re making written statements that others can \u201clisten\u201d and \u201crespond\u201d to. Knowing which texts you can trust means understanding which authors you can trust.<\/p>\n

\n

Marvin: How do I figure that out?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: It helps to know who the authors are. What they\u2019re saying. Where, when, and to whom they\u2019re saying it. And what their purposes are. Imagine the world as divided into many parlors like the one Kenneth Burke described. You\u2019d want to go to the parlors where people who really know something are\u00a0talking\u00a0<\/em>about the topics you\u2019re interested in. Let\u2019s go back to your initial Google search for a minute. Did any Wikipedia articles come up for bottled water?<\/p>\n

Marvin: Yeah, and I took a quick look at one of them. But some of my professors say I shouldn\u2019t use Wikipedia.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: That\u2019s because the quality of information in Wikipedia var- ies. It\u2019s monitored by volunteer writers and editors rather than experts, so you should double-check information you find in Wikipedia with other sources. But Wikipedia articles are often good places to get background info and good places to connect with more reliable sources. Did anything in the Wikipedia article seem useful for finding sources on bottled water?<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0clicks<\/em>\u00a0ba<\/em>c<\/em>k<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>o<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0W<\/em>i<\/em>k<\/em>ip<\/em>ed<\/em>i<\/em>a<\/em>\u00a0sit<\/em>e.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: It does mention that the National Resources Defense Council and the Drinking Water Research Foundation have done some studies on the health effects of bottled water (\u201cBottled Water\u201d).<\/p>\n

O-Prof: So, you could go to the websites for these organizations to find out more about the studies. They might even have links to the full reports of these studies, as well as other resources on your topic. Who else might have something to say about the healthfulness of bottled and tap water?<\/p>\n

Marvin: Maybe doctors and other health professionals? But I don\u2019t know any I could ask.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

O-Prof: You can look in the library\u2019s subject guides or ask the\u00a0librarian\u00a0about databases for health professionals. The Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) database is a good one. Are you logged in to the library? Can you try that one?<\/p>\n

\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0logs<\/em>\u00a0i<\/em>n,<\/em>\u00a0fin<\/em>d<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0da<\/em>t<\/em>abase,<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>d<\/em>\u00a0typ<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0in<\/em>\u00a0\u201c<\/em>bo<\/em>ttl<\/em>ed<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>a<\/em>ter<\/em>\u00a0AND health.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: Here\u2019s an article called \u201cHealth Risks and Benefits of Bottled Water.\u201d It\u2019s in the journal\u00a0Primary Care Clinical Office Practice\u00a0<\/em>(Napier and Kodner).<\/p>\n

O-Prof: If that\u2019s a peer-reviewed journal, it might be a good source for your paper.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Here\u2019s another one: \u201cSocio-Demographic Features and Fluoride Technologies Contributing to Higher Fluorosis Scores in Permanent Teeth of Canadian Children\u201d (Maupome et al.). That one sounds pretty technical.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: And pretty narrow, too. When you start using sources writ- ten by experts, you move beyond the huge porch of public discourse, where everyone\u00a0talks\u00a0<\/em>about all questions on a general level, into some smaller conversational parlors, where groups of specialists\u00a0talk\u00a0<\/em>about more narrow questions in greater depth. You generally find more detailed and trust- worthy knowledge in these smaller parlors. But sometimes the conversation may be too narrow for your needs and difficult to understand because it\u2019s experts\u00a0talking\u00a0<\/em>to experts.<\/p>\n

Wa<\/em>y<\/em>\u00a0ahead<\/em>\u00a0o<\/em>f<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0pr<\/em>o<\/em>f<\/em>e<\/em>ss<\/em>o<\/em>r,<\/em>\u00a0M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u2019<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>lr<\/em>ead<\/em>y<\/em>\u00a0st<\/em>a<\/em>rt<\/em>ed<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>ead<\/em>ing<\/em>\u00a0abo<\/em>ut<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>he<\/em>\u00a0hea<\/em>lt<\/em>h<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>i<\/em>sks<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>d<\/em>\u00a0benefi<\/em>ts<\/em>\u00a0o<\/em>f<\/em>\u00a0bo<\/em>ttl<\/em>ed<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>a<\/em>ter.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: Here\u2019s something confusing. The summary of this article on risks and benefits of bottled water says tap water is fine if you\u2019re in a location where there\u2019s good water. Then it says that you should use bottled water if the purity of your water source is in question. So which is better, tap or bottled?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: As you read more sources, you begin to realize there\u2019s not always a simple answer to questions. As the CINAHL article points out, the answer depends on whether your tap water is\u00a0pure enough to drink. Not everyone agrees on the answers, either. When you\u2019re advising your future clients (or in this case, writing your paper), you\u2019ll need to \u201clisten\u201d to what different people who\u00a0talk\u00a0<\/em>about the healthfulness of bottled and tap water have to say. Then you\u2019ll be equipped to make your own \u00a0recommendation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Marvin: Is that when I start writing?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: You\u2019ve really been writing all along. Asking questions and gathering ideas from sources is all part of the process. As we think about the actual drafting, though, it\u2019s helpful to move on to that third metaphor:\u00a0cooking.\u00a0<\/em>When you\u00a0cook<\/em>\u00a0with sources, you process them in new ways. Cooking, like writing, involves a lot of decisions. For instance, you might decide to combine ingredients in a way that keeps the full flavor and character of each ingredient.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Kind of like chili cheese fries? I can taste the flavor of the chili, the cheese, and the fries separately.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Yes. But other food preparation processes can change the character of the various ingredients. You probably wouldn\u2019t enjoy gobbling down a stick of butter, two raw eggs, a cup of flour, or a cup of sugar (well, maybe the sugar!). But if you mix these ingredients and expose them to a 375-degree tem- perature, chemical reactions transform them into something good to eat, like a cake.<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0r<\/em>ea<\/em>c<\/em>he<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0int<\/em>o<\/em>\u00a0h<\/em>is<\/em>\u00a0ba<\/em>c<\/em>k<\/em>p<\/em>a<\/em>c<\/em>k<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>n<\/em>d<\/em>\u00a0pulls<\/em>\u00a0o<\/em>ut<\/em>\u00a0a snack.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: You\u2019re making me hungry. But what do chili cheese fries and cakes have to do with writing?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Sometimes, you might use verbatim quotations from your sources, as if you were throwing walnuts whole into a sal- ad. The reader will definitely \u201ctaste\u201d your original source. Other times, you might paraphrase ideas and combine them into an intricate argument. The flavor of the original source might be more subtle in the latter case, with only your source documentation indicating where your ideas came from. In some ways, the writing assignments your professors give you are like recipes. As an apprentice writing\u00a0cook,\u00a0<\/em>you should\u00a0analyze your assignments to determine what \u201cingredients\u201d (sources) to use, what \u201ccooking processes\u201d to follow, and what the final \u201cdish\u201d (paper) should look like. Let\u2019s try a few sample assignments. Here\u2019s one:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Assig<\/strong>nment 1: Critique\u00a0<\/strong>(given in a human development course)<\/p>\n

We\u2019ve read and studied Freud\u2019s theory of how the human psyche develops; now it\u2019s time to evaluate the theory. Read at least two articles that critique Freud\u2019s theory, chosen from the list I provided in class. Then, write an essay discussing the strengths and weaknesses of Freud\u2019s theory.<\/p>\n

Assume you\u2019re a student in this course. Given this assignment, how would you describe the required ingredients, processes, and product?<\/p>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0t<\/em>h<\/em>inks<\/em>\u00a0f<\/em>o<\/em>r<\/em>\u00a0a minute, while chewing and swallowing a mouthful of apple.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: Let\u2019s see if I can break it down:<\/p>\n

Ingredients<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 everything we\u2019ve read about Freud\u2019s theory<\/p>\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 our class discussions about the theory<\/p>\n

\u2022\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 two articles of my choice taken from the list provided by the instructor<\/p>\n

Processes<\/strong>: I have to read those two articles to see their criticisms of Freud\u2019s theory. I can also review my notes from class, since we discussed various critiques. I have to think about what aspects of Freud\u2019s theory explain human development well, and where the theory falls short\u2014like in class, we discussed how Freud\u2019s theory reduces human development to sexuality alone.<\/p>\n

Product<\/strong>: The final essay needs to include both strengths and weaknesses of Freud\u2019s theory. The professor didn\u2019t specifically say this, but it\u2019s also clear I need to incorporate some ideas from the two articles I read\u2014otherwise why would she have assigned those articles?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

O-Prof: Good. How about this one?<\/p>\n

\n

Assig<\/strong>nment 2: Business Plan\u00a0<\/strong>(given in an entrepreneurship course)<\/p>\n

As your major project for this course, your group will develop a business plan for a student-run business that meets some need on this campus. Be sure to include all aspects of a business plan. During the last few weeks of class, each group will present the plan to the class, using appropriate visuals.<\/p>\n

Marvin: I\u2019ll give it a try.<\/p>\n

Ingredients<\/strong>: Hmm . . . It\u2019s hard to tell the sources I\u2019ll need. Obviously, whatever the teacher teaches us about business plans in the course will be important\u2014hope she goes into detail about this and provides examples. What if she doesn\u2019t? What sources could my group use? Our textbook has a chap- ter on business plans that will probably help, and maybe we can go to the library and look for books about writing business plans. Some sample business plans would be helpful\u2014I wonder if the Center for Small Business Support on our cam- pus would have some?<\/p>\n

Processes<\/strong>: Well, maybe we could have each member of the group look for sources about business plans and then meet together to discuss what we need to do, or talk online. Don\u2019t know how we\u2019ll break down the writing\u2014maybe we could divide up the various sections of the plan, or discuss each section together, then someone could write it up?<\/p>\n

Product<\/strong>: It\u2019s clear that we have to include all the information that business owners put in a business plan, and we\u2019ll have to follow the organization of a typical plan. But we can\u2019t tell exactly what that organization should be until we\u2019ve done some research.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Here\u2019s one last assignment to try out.<\/p>\n

Assig<\/strong>nment 3: Research Paper\u00a0<\/strong>(given in a health and environment course)<\/p>\n

Write a 6\u20138-page paper in which you explain a health prob- lem related to water pollution (e.g., arsenic poisoning, gastrointestinal illness, skin disease, etc.). Recommend a potential\u00a0way or ways this health problem might be addressed. Be sure to cite and document the sources you use for your paper.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Marvin: Oho, trick question! That one sounds familiar.<\/p>\n

Ingredients<\/strong>: No specific guidance here, except that sources have to relate to water pollution and health. I\u2019ve already de- cided I\u2019m interested in how bottled water might help with health where there\u2019s water pollution. I\u2019ll have to pick a health problem and find sources about how water pollution can cause that problem. Gastrointestinal illness sounds promis- ing. I\u2019ll ask the reference librarian where I\u2019d be likely to find good articles about water pollution, bottled water, and gas- trointestinal illness.<\/p>\n

Process<\/strong>: There\u2019s not very specific information here about what process to use, but our conversation\u2019s given me some ideas. I\u2019ll use scholarly articles to find the connection be- tween water pollution and gastrointestinal problems, and whether bottled water could prevent those problems.<\/p>\n

Product<\/strong>: Obviously, my paper will explain the connection between water and gastrointestinal health. It\u2019ll evaluate whether bottled water provides a good option in places where the water\u2019s polluted, then give a recommendation about what people should do. The professor did say I should address any objections readers might raise\u2014for instance, bottled water may turn out to be a good option, but it\u2019s a lot more expen- sive than tap water. Finally, I\u2019ll need to provide in-text cita- tions and document my sources in a reference list.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: You\u2019re on your way. Think for a minute about these three assignments. Did you notice that the \u201crecipes\u201d varied in their specificity?<\/p>\n

Marvin: Yeah. The first assignment gave me very specific information about exactly what source \u201cingredients\u201d to use. But in the second and third assignments, I had to figure it out on my own. And the processes varied, too. For the business plan, the groups will use sources to figure out how to organize the plan, but the actual content will be drawn from their own ideas for their business and any market research they do. But in the third assignment\u2014my own assignment\u2014I\u2019ll have to use content from my sources to support my recommendation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

O-Prof: Different professors provide different levels of specificity in their writing assignments. If you have trouble figuring out the \u201crecipe,\u201d ask the professor for more information.<\/p>\n

\n

Marvin: Sometimes it can be really frustrating not to have enough information. Last semester, I sat around being frustrated and put off doing an assignment as long as possible, then rushed to finish it. I didn\u2019t do very well on the rough draft, but then I met with my professor and talked to him. Also, the class read each other\u2019s papers. Getting feedback and looking at what other students had done gave me some new ideas for my final draft.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: When it comes to \u201ccooking with sources,\u201d no one expects you to be an executive chef the first day you get to college. Over time, you\u2019ll become more expert at writing with sourc- es, more able to choose and use sources on your own. You\u2019ll probably need less guidance for writing in your senior year than in your freshman year. Which brings me to the last metaphor for using sources.<\/p>\n

Marvin:\u00a0Eating,\u00a0<\/em>right?<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Good memory. In fact, this last metaphor is about memory, which is how sources become a part of who you are. You\u2019ve probably heard the expression, \u201cyou are what you eat.\u201d When you\u00a0eat\u00a0<\/em>sources\u2014that is, think about things, experiment, read, write, talk to others\u2014you yourself change. What you learn stays with you.<\/p>\n

Marvin: Not always. It\u2019s hard for me to remember the things I learn in class until the final exam, not to mention after the class is over.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Of course. We all forget a lot of the things we learn, espe- cially those we seldom or never use again; but what you learn and use over a long period of time will affect you deeply and shape the way you see the world. Take a look at this quote from Mark Twain in\u00a0Life on the Mississippi<\/em>, where the narrator\u2019s talking about his apprenticeship as a steamboat pi- lot. When he first began his apprenticeship, the Mississippi River looked the same as any other river. But after he made many long trips up and down it, with the captain and others explaining\u00a0things along the way, he began to see it in all its complexity.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

The face of the water, in time, became a wonderful book\u2014a book that was a dead language to the uneducated passenger, but which told its mind to me without reserve, delivering its most cherished secrets as clearly as if it uttered them with a voice. (77\u201378)<\/p>\n

Eventually, the narrator could identify each of the river\u2019s bends, knew how its currents were running, and could estimate how deep it was just by looking at the surface. It was the same river, but he was a different man. Your bottled water project isn\u2019t as involved as learning to pilot a steamship. But once you start reading your sources, your experience of bottled water will shift. It\u2019ll still be the same water you used to drink, but it won\u2019t be the same you.<\/p>\n

Marvin: I can sort of see that already. I\u2019ve learned a lot about anatomy and physiology in the physician assistant program. Now, when I see a soccer player, I think about how the shin guard is protecting her tibia, not her shin. If I see someone with yellowish eyeballs, I think about bilirubin levels. And I always read the health section of the newspaper first.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Right. And a journalism major, who takes courses on beat reporting and feature writing, thinks about what will make a good story. A geology major does field work, looks at maps, learns about geological history, and sees rocks everywhere. Over time, through much exposure to a field and practice in it, a person\u2019s identity gradually becomes intertwined with his or her profession. Not entirely, of course. All of us are many things. A doctor may have an interest in calligraphy. A business manager might study poetry in her spare time. In both work and leisure activities, you\u2019ll keep on learning and making meaning from sources like other people, writing, books, websites, videos, articles, and your own experience. College is about learning\u00a0how\u00a0<\/em>to make meaning. Learn how to\u00a0walk<\/em>\u00a0(find the sources you need);\u00a0talk\u00a0<\/em>(converse with source authors);\u00a0cook\u00a0<\/em>(integrate sources to make new meaning); and\u00a0eat\u00a0<\/em>(allow sources to change your life). You won\u2019t ever finish using sources to make meaning\u2014not in your health and environment course, not while you\u2019re in college, not even after you\u2019ve been working and living for a long time.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

M<\/em>a<\/em>rvin<\/em>\u00a0gl<\/em>a<\/em>nc<\/em>e<\/em>s<\/em>\u00a0a<\/em>t<\/em>\u00a0h<\/em>is<\/em>\u00a0w<\/em>a<\/em>tc<\/em>h.<\/em><\/p>\n

Marvin: Speaking of time, I should probably grab some dinner before the cafeteria closes. Thanks, Professor, for all your help.<\/p>\n

O-Prof: Good luck with your paper, and with the rest of your writing life.<\/p>\n

Licenses and Attributions<\/strong><\/p>\n

CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL<\/p>\n

Composing Ourselves and Our World,\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0Provided by: the authors. License:\u00a0Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)<\/a><\/p>\n

CC LICENSED CONTENT INCLUDED<\/p>\n

This chapter contains an adaptation of\u00a0Walk, Talk, Cook, Eat: A Guide to Using Sources<\/a>.\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0Provided by: Cynthia R. Haller. License: This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":65,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"Cynthia R. Haller","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-98","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":88,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/98","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/65"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/98\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":180,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/98\/revisions\/180"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/88"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/98\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=98"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=98"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=98"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppcc5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=98"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}