{"id":52,"date":"2021-09-28T18:02:09","date_gmt":"2021-09-28T18:02:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/chapter\/chapter-3\/"},"modified":"2022-08-23T22:32:53","modified_gmt":"2022-08-23T22:32:53","slug":"chapter-3","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/chapter\/chapter-3\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 8: International Relations","rendered":"Chapter 8: International Relations"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Chapter 8: International Relations<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nNo war is commenced or, at least, no war should be commenced if people acted wisely, without first seeking a reply to the question, What is to be attained by and in the same?\u00a0 \u2026 we shall have to grasp the idea that war, and the form which we give it, proceeds from ideas, feelings, and circumstances which dominate for the moment \u2026 war may be a thig which is sometimes war in a greater, sometimes in a lesser degree.[1]\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nStudents will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify the various international relations theories (realism, liberalism, radical theories, constructivism, and feminism)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze global issues through an International Relations perspective<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Evaluate topics as a global citizen<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Develop an understanding of the role nation-states play in the international system beyond their own geopolitical space<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThis chapter will briefly demonstrate to students the intersection of theory, history, practice, analysis, and predictability in an ever-evolving international system with diverse and complex actors.\u00a0 International relations\u2019 contribution to political science has been vast in both academia and among practitioners.\u00a0 For example, the work of J. David Singer in the War Correlates[2] illustrates these relationships.\u00a0 International relations broadened the research in political science, in particular, its understanding of state to state relations and in foreign policy.\u00a0 Human security has moved beyond national borders into the international system and the complexity of the issues requires collaboration and multiple actors.\u00a0 Human security is intrinsically political and political science methodologies along with international relations provide for effective analysis while looking for solutions.\r\n\r\n<strong>History <\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe Peloponnesian wars (431-405 B.C.) between Sparta and Athens were about balance of power and tensions between the two city-states and their respective leagues, the Delian League or the Athenian League, and the Peloponnesian League.\u00a0 Besides the great strategic game described by Thucydides, the leadership of important men like Pericles and Lysander and the role of Persia are some of the elements that international relations scholars can use for a historical analysis.\u00a0 The alliances are critically important for one\u2019s understanding of the international system.\u00a0 A Multipolar system is exemplified by the \u2018constitution of the Peloponnesian League\u2019 (550-366 B.C.).\u00a0\u00a0 The league\u2019s constitution provides for how alliances worked between Sparta and its allies.\u00a0 Alliances were important to avoid war and to strengthen their position in relation to a common enemy.\u00a0 The following is an example of such an alliance:\r\n<blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">I.(d) Each ally enjoyed, in theory, complete internal autonomy, but took an oath \u2018to have the same friends and enemies as the Spartans and to follow the Spartan withthersoever they may lead\u2019, and was consequently subject to Spartan dictation as far as foreign policy was concerned.[3]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">3. During a war, Sparta was always in complete control of all military operations, by land and sea; and it was she who decided what campaigns would be conducted and provided the commanders.[4]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">In order to hold her alliance together, Sparta on her side had to defend her allies from outside attack, whether from Argos or from beyond the Peloponnese, give them \u2018freedom and autonomy\u2019 (in a very special sense, as we shall see in a moment), and attach them to herself by making them acquiesce in their submission to her hegemony.\u00a0 If she broke her treaty obligations, the allies concerned, in theory, would automatically be released from theirs; although, of course in practice they might not dare to repudiate their treaties and thus \u2018revolt\u2019 from Sparta: This would depend on their strength relative to Sparta\u2019s and the external situation at the time.[5]<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\nAnother historical element worth mentioning is the Thirty Years War and the resulting Treaty of Westphalia (1648).\u00a0 The result was a separation of church and state, recognition of state sovereignty, and geopolitical borders.\r\n\r\nThe European religious wars of 1618-1648, known as the Thirty Years War, refocused power away from religious authority, the pope, to the states, kings.\u00a0 The assertiveness of kings to gain power promoted a new definition of both nation-state and sovereignty.\u00a0 The historic consequences of the Thirty Years War are multilayered. \u00a0By concentrating power on the state, kings learned to: 1) amass power and to give birth to an era later known as absolutism; 2) respect geopolitical borders in Europe and to assert their power in far-away lands, a process called colonialism; 3) rule with the concept of sovereignty in mind; and 4) respect the emergence of nation-states.\u00a0 Kings have secular power over \u201ctheir\u201d people and the church has power over their salvation\u2014separation of church and state.\u00a0 Building a national military, pulling power away from lords, solving border disputes, building trade, protecting rights of individuals, facilitating the movement of peoples were key issues that kings learned how to do diplomatically while demonstrating that they did not fear religious retaliation from Rome. The use of force to protect the state, geopolitical borders, resources, and population is now the sovereign\u2019s (king) responsibility.\u00a0 The idea that a feudal lord wants a castle by the sea to vacation in during the summer months was altered with the Treaty of Westphalia. \u00a0Feudal rebellions were crushed and international affairs were now part of the king\u2019s power as executive, as chief diplomat, and as foreign policy maker.\r\n\r\nShowing allegiance to the king not feudal lords became standard, and post-1648 it was the modus operandi for the state\u2019s economic and political life, or even perhaps, for its survival.\u00a0 As a result of the Thirty Years War and the Treaty of Westphalia, countries increased diplomatic ties with each other, not via Rome.\u00a0 Who had power?\u00a0 What alliances shall be drawn?\u00a0 What helped shape international law?\u00a0 Common interests in the high seas led to the Law of the Seas and management of piracy.\u00a0 Alliances were flimsy.\u00a0 A multipolar system was established with states possessing a naval power, and as such, these states were perceived as powerful.\u00a0 While domestic power in terms of \u201cmilitary boots\u201d on the ground was key, international affairs was shifting to challenge colonial powers like: Portugal, Spain, Britain, Holland, France, Italy, and yes, even Denmark.\u00a0 States started to demand their fair share of colonies and access to the seas.\u00a0 Previously, the pope had divided the world with the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 between the Portuguese and the Spanish.\u00a0 The Westphalian world created a new challenge, because colonial expansion depended on the strong and strategic naval capacity of states.\r\n\r\n<strong>Multipolar system<\/strong>\r\n\r\nA multipolar system occurs when states create alliances among themselves that last only until one state perceives that it no longer benefits from that alliance.\u00a0 Switching alliances is expected among states in the international system.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_51\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"167\"]<img class=\"wp-image-47\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/09\/Multipolar-300x269.jpg\" alt=\"Multipolar System\" width=\"167\" height=\"150\" \/> Figure 3.1 Multipolar system[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEngland and Portugal are known to have the oldest alliance in Europe.\u00a0 States made alliances with each other as long as they perceived a benefit.\u00a0 If another state offered a \u201cbetter deal,\u201d alliances<span style=\"font-size: 14pt; text-align: initial;\"> were likely to shift.\u00a0 This system was in place until the end of World War II.\u00a0 The multipolar world is best described as two countries or more with power and capacity to act and to make alliances that have short- to medium-term characteristics.\u00a0\u00a0 The effects of various historic events like revolutions, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789); dynastic interests during the 18th and 19th centuries; the continental blockade and the Napoleonic wars 1807-11; the concert of Europe (Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain); and the Berlin Conference 1884-85 (European claims on Africa) all demonstrate how alliances and state interests along with kings\u2019 interests, make the multipolar system critically complex.\u00a0 The multipolar world starting with the Peloponnesian wars and the shifts of alliances until World War II demonstrates the durability of this system.\u00a0 The various historical periods of the multipolar system show how the system works and evolves.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>Bipolar system<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_51\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"265\"]<img class=\"wp-image-48\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar-300x170.jpg\" alt=\"Bipolar System\" width=\"265\" height=\"150\" \/> Figure 3.2 Bipolar system[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhen World War II ended in 1945, the historical multipolar system with its complex structure of alliances, gave room to a bipolar system with two super powers, the United States (U.S.) and the Soviet Union (USSR).\u00a0 At the end of World War II, U.S. and USSR stood with power in the following areas: military, economic, political, social capital, and values. \u00a0The period between 1945-1989 was called the Cold War.\u00a0 The world was struggling to make sense of what World War II had brought to their doorstep.\u00a0 While fascism did not end, Nazism and its atrocities did.\u00a0 Empires embarked on a decolonization process that would last decades.\u00a0 Peoples were gaining consciousness of their sovereignty and of self-governance.\u00a0 States were trying to rebuild, reaffirm their position, and reclaim power in an anarchic international system.\u00a0 The bipolar system demanded states to take sides with either the U.S. or with the USSR.\u00a0 The Cold War was a time to pick your battles.\u00a0 States formulated their alliances based on economic, military, and social interests.\u00a0 For example, political systems, like dictatorships, were overlooked as long as U.S. interests were protected and U.S. national security was prioritized.\u00a0 The U.S. and USSR created an arms race, a space race, and a technology race (perhaps, it was more like a technology gap.)\u00a0 The two powers had allies, willingly or not, to help advance their power and interests in the international system.\u00a0 The U.S. and allies created NATO in 1949.[6]\u00a0\u00a0 In 1955 as a response to NATO, the USSR created the Warsaw Pact.[7]\u00a0 Military arrangements were clearly important and a source of demonstrated power.\u00a0 During the Cold War, peace between the two superpowers was critically maintained as evidence suggests by the number of proxy and limited conflicts fought in places like Greece, Korea, Vietnam, Angola, Grenada, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Afghanistan to name only a few.\u00a0 The bipolar system worked to create stability and relative peace as no world war was fought between the period of 1945 to 1989.\u00a0 The bipolar system was made possible because economic systems supported the building up of militaries, and the development of technology created competition beyond the military.\u00a0 Nuclear power and ballistic systems helped support deterrence between the two superpowers and their allies.\u00a0 During this time, security distrust along with economic competition and differences in values produced tensions, which created misconceptions and misperceptions that would influence foreign policy for decades.\u00a0 D\u00e9tente evolved during the Nixon administration.\u00a0 This is known as a period of relaxation of tensions between the two superpowers.\u00a0 D\u00e9tente led to disarmament discussions and the SALT treaty in the 1980s.\u00a0 How does the Cold War end? \u00a0With a wall, a brick in the wall, the Berlin wall.\u00a0 The symbolism of the Berlin Wall being torn down in 1989 is important.\u00a0 Gorbachev negotiated with the west.\u00a0 Gorbachev envisioned a more open society, and perestroika and glasnost were his policies to achieve the society he thought necessary for that time.\u00a0 Popular culture had its impact as well.\u00a0 The emergence of popular culture and figures like Sting and his song \u201cRussians\u201d, the Culture Club with their song \u201cThe War Song\u201d, the film \u201cJudgment in Berlin\u201d (1988) among others helped to open East-West relations.\u00a0 The international system was going through another change during this time.\u00a0 The fall of the Berlin wall and the establishment of the Russian Federation in 1992 left the U.S. standing as a hegemonic power. A unipolar international system was beginning to emerge.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>Unipolar system<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_51\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"266\"]<img class=\"wp-image-49\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Unipolar System\" width=\"266\" height=\"150\" \/> Figure 3.3 Unipolar System[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe unipolar system is defined as having a single state with power and acting with hegemonic capacity.\u00a0 This period lasted from the years of 1989 to 2000. In the unipolar system, the U.S. was the sole superpower.\u00a0 Some scholars have challenged the hegemonic position of the U.S.\u00a0\u00a0 Othe\r\n\r\nr scholars have suggested that states turned to regional responses and diverted their attention regionally (an increase in regionalism, or reginal al\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_51\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"154\"]<img class=\"wp-image-50\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Pool-of-allies.jpg\" alt=\"Alliances\" width=\"154\" height=\"150\" \/> Figure 3.4 Alliances[\/caption]\r\n\r\nliances among states).\u00a0 Regionalism offered states the ability to fill a power vacuum.\u00a0 The unipolar system saw a new challenge as the \u201cpool\u201d of allies\u00a0increased through regional alliances.\u00a0 The economic system changed; trade demands and expectations did as well.\u00a0 During the 1990s, the U.S. as de facto holder of hegemonic power, was challenged by unexpected states.\u00a0\u00a0The following\u00a0are examples of how the U.S.\u2019 power was chipped away:\u00a0 Japan asking the U.S. to withdraw its troops and Turkey challenging the U.S. in the Middle East in 2003 and in 2019.\u00a0 In 2003, Turkey first denied U.S. airspace, then they gave airspace permissions but denied the use of Turkish bases for an attack on Iraq.\u00a0 Further, Turkish President Erdogan made a bilateral arms deal with Russia in 2019.\r\n\r\nThe United States has also lost some of its hegemonic power as suggested by Carranza in regard to MERCOSUR[8] and FTAA[9] agreement in Latin America: \u201cThe Miami Trade Ministerial Conference illustrates the limitations faced by the United States in its attempt to reassert hegemony in Latin America.\u00a0 [\u2026] Brazil and MERCOSUR successfully managed to balance U.S. power. [\u2026] The history of the FTAA negotiations shows the difficulties faced by the United States in consolidating hegemony over Latin America and the important role played by MERCOSUR as a counterweight to the exercise of U.S. structural power in the region.\u201d[10]\u00a0 The U.S.\u2019 unipolarity and hegemony were challenged in the first years of the 2000s.\u00a0 Regionalism started to form during this period.\u00a0 China started to concentrate its economic power with expansion of military power alongside a space race.\u00a0 China competes with Japan on a number of issues like South China Sea territory, and the cement market.\u00a0 The unipolar system of the 1990s is critically challenged by various events like the United States\u2019 War on Terror, the Great Recession of 2008, challenges to political systems with the Arab Spring, and more recently the emergence of populist governments challenging democracy.\u00a0 Polarity in the international system has been imagined and reimagined as global circumstances demand.\u00a0 History allows for examples to be discussed, but theoretical approaches allow for analysis and prediction.\r\n\r\n<strong>Theories in International Relations<\/strong>\r\n\r\nWhat is the purpose of international relations theories?\u00a0 Why should they be used?\u00a0 Most political scientists have been trained to admire and promote theories of international relations, in part because these theories provide structure and allow for explanations.\u00a0 Meanwhile, students want to know what is happening in the world: why states\u2019 reactions and behavior differ when faced with the same problems? \u00a0And in some cases, students want to know what they can do to solve a problem.\u00a0 How do students and their interests fit into the picture?\u00a0 Regardless of the level of altruism from students, political scientists remain firm that theory provides for a means to explain and make sense of wars, international law, genocides, famine, trade, environmental problems, and pandemics, to mention a few of the issues that affect one\u2019s life in this very intensely global world.\r\n\r\nTheories provide for a systematic and independent process, which allows investigators to analyze and predict phenomena.\u00a0 Using theories helps to legitimize ones studies and helps frame the study, the analysis, and the predictions.\u00a0 In this way, theories provide scholars with a \u201cframework\u201d to interpret phenomena.\u00a0 Theories are a tool of analysis.\u00a0 Why include theories, such as the following: realism, liberalism, constructivism, radical theories, and feminism?[11]\u00a0 These theories offer competing ideas and approaches. They are important because they reframe global issues and their complexities.\u00a0 The theories included therein are well-established theories and are well accepted by scholars of international relations. \u00a0Most importantly, these theories are studied and introduced to students at most undergraduate institutions.\u00a0 In international relations, theories focus mostly on the state as an actor in an anarchic international system.\r\n\r\n<strong>Classical Realism<\/strong>\r\n\r\nRealism offers a state level theory that proposes that the central actors in a global context, are states seeking power. \u00a0Realism argues that the battle for power and preserving power is critical for state survival.\u00a0 States seek to increase power\u2014both tangible and intangible.\u00a0 In this scenario, states amass power at the cost of a perceived enemy.\u00a0 When one state has power and another state does not, that constitutes a legitimate threat. \u00a0Realism allocates human characteristics like selfishness, greed, aggression, and insecurity to states.\u00a0 This is because the individuals who govern states have those behaviors, and therefore, cannot be trusted.\u00a0 While realists insist that war is more likely to prevail than peace, long-term durable peace is difficult to ascertain.\u00a0 Two things are important for peace to be obtained.\u00a0 First, there must be a balance of power (U.S. and USSR during the Cold War), and second, is the cost-benefit of war.\u00a0 Balance of power is executed when two or more states have near identical power in terms of capacity, capability, and resources.\u00a0 Cost-benefit analysis of wars occurs when states either go to war because they predict that they can win, or, they do not engage in conflict because victory is uncertain.\r\n\r\n<strong>Realism Authors<\/strong>: Thucydides, Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Carl von Clausewitz, Hans Morgenthau, George Kennan, E. H. Carr, Henry Kissinger\r\n\r\n<strong>Neorealism Authors:<\/strong> Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Kenneth Waltz\r\n\r\n<strong>Liberalism<\/strong>\r\n\r\nLiberalism is another state level theory centered on cooperation, international law, international trade, international institutions, and human security.\u00a0 While liberalism recognizes and thrives on cooperation and diplomacy, it also sees the benefits of competition. \u00a0Contrary to realism, liberalism acknowledges that individuals have a desire to improve the state of the human condition and to promote a just society.\u00a0 It also acknowledges that individuals are rational beings and believes that laws are needed to promote cooperation.\u00a0 Shared values offer alternatives to conflict, including war.\u00a0 Within liberalism, democratic peace theory argues that because of shared values, culture, and norms, liberal democracies are less likely to go to war with other democracies.\u00a0 However, this does not stop liberal democracies from going to war with states that have opposing ideologies.\u00a0 With liberalism as a theoretical approach, international law is enforceable.\u00a0 Also, this theory promotes social justice issues like human rights, ecological issues, and cultural exchanges.\u00a0 The existence of U.S. and USSR cooperation over arms control since the 1980s demonstrates how diplomacy works even when military concerns and power are at stake.\u00a0 As a theory, liberalism supports the use of international conventions, like the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946), the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (1963), or the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).\u00a0 Under the umbrella of liberalism, international institutions are used to mediate conflicts\u2014like the World Trade Organization mediates trade and the United Nations (UN) promotes preventive diplomacy.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/oll-resources.s3.amazonaws.com\/titles\/278\/0175_Bk.pdf\">Full Text: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation by Jeremy Bentham<\/a>\r\n\r\nToday, the international community has embraced non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as allies for the creation of cooperation and human security.\r\n\r\n<strong>Liberalism Authors<\/strong>: John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, Adam Smith, Joseph Schumpeter\r\n\r\n<strong>Democratic Peace Theory:<\/strong> Bruce Russett\r\n\r\n<strong>Constructivism<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThis theory adds state behavior to the context of the state\u2019s characteristics, because each state has its own uniqueness: values, history, institutions, political system, social landscape, economic system, and religious practices.\u00a0 These elements affect how the state acts in the international system, through its foreign policy.\u00a0 For example, the United Kingdom\u2019s (UK) exit from the European Union (EU), known as Brexit, demonstrates that as a unit the UK has a set of values and social landscape that are in contrast with continental Europe.\u00a0 Brexit is an example of clashing identities and interests.\u00a0 The concept of state interest is socially constructed based on the state\u2019s unique characteristics.\u00a0 States socialize other states and in turn they are socialized by international organizations, like the UN and the EU. \u00a0\u00a0The acceptance of international law by states and inclusion of international conventions, such as the Third Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1949), demonstrates how states are socialized by accepting ideas that otherwise they would have not adopted and how international organizations promote cooperation by adoption of international law.\r\n\r\n<strong>Constructivism Authors<\/strong>: Alex Wendt, James Der Derian\r\n\r\n<strong>Radical Theories<\/strong>\r\n\r\nGenerally identified as Marxist in nature, these theories expand from Marx, to Lenin, and to neo-Marxist theorists, like dependency theorist Cardoso.\u00a0 Traditionally, Marxism focuses on class (state and society), while Marxism-Leninism (and Neo-Marxism) turns its focus from the state to the international system.\u00a0 The Marxist idea of class struggle over the ownership of the means of production (e.g. coal mines and factories), and the struggle between the proletariat (the laborers) and the bourgeoisie (the owners), transfers to the international system by studying countries.\u00a0 This antagonism grows domestically until the working class, the proletariat, gains consciousness of its needy position and through a revolution, takes over the government and regains control of the means of production, thus promoting domestic equity by the distribution of goods and services.\u00a0 The proletariat initiates an international moment of revolutions. \u00a0This process will bring international consciousness to the following issues: 1) labor conditions of individual workers; 2) bourgeoisie acquisition of resources; 3) inequity in the distribution of goods; and 4) the disadvantage of trade relations in colonial times and post-colonial relationships among states (e.g. Marx demonstrates the disadvantaged position of India, relative to England).\r\n\r\nMarxism-Leninism, and to a certain extent, neo-Marxism, offer distinct insight into international relations by exploring state relations through dependency theory (Cardoso), banking (Luxemburg), and system theory (Wallerstein). \u00a0The prevalence of corporations, multinational corporations (MNCs), and transnational corporations (TNCs) dominating trade relations, services, and banking between rich and poor countries demonstrate the inequities in the international system.\u00a0 MNCs take advantage of the international system by exploiting poor countries\u2019 labor and natural resources because these countries lack the political and economic capacity to assert and to protect their disadvantaged position, particularly in trade.\r\n\r\nMarxism-Leninism looks at the international system as anarchic.\u00a0 The anarchic nature of the international system allows for states to create hierarchic economic and political relations among themselves in part due to economic domestic conditions.\u00a0 In this instance, the state has shifted its interests from manufacturing to finance capital and banking.\u00a0 Finance capital is internationalized, and in Lenin\u2019s terms this equals imperialism.\u00a0 The Vanguard Party envisioned by Lenin would lead the proletariat through liberation.\u00a0 In disagreement with Lenin, Luxemburg suggested that domestically this liberation is more organic and not dependent on the hierarchy of a party.\u00a0 Dependency theorists like Cardoso argued that it was in the interest of the core states (1st world) to maintain the status quo.\u00a0 The periphery states (3rd world) were at a disadvantage and were dependent on the prices of raw materials and labor markets to be able to satisfy the core states\u2019 production needs.\r\n\r\n<strong>Radical Authors<\/strong>:\u00a0 Karl Marx, Nikolai Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, Mao Zedong, John A. Hobson, Immanuel Wallerstein, Fernando Cardoso\r\n\r\n<strong>Feminism<\/strong>\r\n\r\nFeminism focuses on the absence of women\u2019s voices in international relations.\u00a0 Feminist theory provides for women\u2019s voices that are absent from theorizing, decision-making, or even from daily activities typically performed by women.\u00a0 Gender as a category of analysis is also included.\u00a0 Feminism sheds light on the absence of women\u2019s perspectives in decision-making.\u00a0 Equally important is women\u2019s inclusion in areas of war and peace.\u00a0 For example, the systematic rape of women in 1992-1995 during the Bosnian War finally went to the International Criminal Court (ICC), where women were able to present their cases of rape and torture.\u00a0 The result was that rape is now a war crime and a crime against humanity.\u00a0 The Nuremberg trials and the Tokyo trials, post- World War II, in contrast, side stepped women.\u00a0 In the case of Japan, Korean women who endured sexual assault and servitude during World War II were labeled as \u2018comfort women for Japanese soldiers.\u2019\u00a0 Due to the courageous voices of Bosnian women, the work of international judges, prosecutors, and investigators, the sexual assault perpetrated on women and girls during the Bosnian conflict now constitutes a war crime.\u00a0 This new jurisprudence has established a safe place for women\u2019s voices to heard and protected.\u00a0 Now there is a process for accountability.\u00a0 The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993-2017) was created to prosecute and bring accountability for acts performed during war times in Bosnia, including acts performed specifically against women and children.\u00a0 Human rights have now been extended to all those who suffered rape, sexual torture, and other forms of persecution during war.\u00a0 In this context, rape and all other sexual actions perpetrated against women and children, and in some cases against male civilians, are punished and some level of justice is realized.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.icty.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.icty.org\/en\/about\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">About the ICTY<\/a>\r\n\r\n<strong>Feminism Authors<\/strong>: Cynthia Enloe, J. Ann Tickner\r\n\r\nTheories are important for the study of international relations, yet they need further contextualization by integrating them with levels of analysis.\r\n\r\n<strong>Levels of Analysis<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_51\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"189\"]<img class=\"wp-image-51\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis-300x238.jpg\" alt=\"Levels of Analysis\" width=\"189\" height=\"150\" \/> Figure 3.5 Levels of Analysis[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn international relations, levels of analysis allow for a better understanding of states\u2019 behaviors in various complex scenarios.\u00a0 Levels of analysis help international relations scholars better understand and analyze how decisions are made and the effects of perceptions in state relations.\u00a0 International relations scholars recognize three levels of analysis: Individual, State, and System.\u00a0 Each level has its own characteristics and impacts.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Individual Level of Analysis<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThis level of analysis focuses on individuals and their contributions.\u00a0 Individual level of analysis uses domestic political atmosphere as a barometer for what actions might be expected from that state.\u00a0 Domestic conditions affect how leaders and decision-makers participate in foreign policy.\u00a0 A leader\u2019s perception of a situation may promote peace or conflict.\u00a0 An example would be how President Trump perceives trade relations with China.\u00a0 The result has been a trade war that has affected many areas of the U.S. economy.\u00a0 A leader\u2019s personality is equally important.\u00a0 Gandhi was able to return India\u2019s to independence in 1947 in part because of his actions and persona.\u00a0 He was charismatic and respectfully defiant of British rule of the Indo-subcontinent.\r\n\r\nSome important variables to consider for the individual level of analysis include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Decision-making<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Awareness of domestic public opinion and support<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Personality (or lack thereof)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Perception<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Actions and choices<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIndividuals with different levels of resources, access, and power have different perspectives about their state\u2019s survival in the international system.\r\n\r\n<strong>Actors or participants<\/strong>: politicians, policy makers, academics, popular leaders, grass-root leaders\r\n\r\n<strong>Examples<\/strong>: Ronald Reagan, Mikael Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, Noam Chomsky, Gandhi, and Greta Thunberg.\r\n\r\n<strong>State Level of Analysis<\/strong>\r\n\r\nDomestic politics shapes how states perform internationally.\u00a0 Is the government a democracy or an authoritarian regime or a transitioning democracy?\u00a0 These are important issues to consider as different regimes have different expectations that can either support international negotiations or hinder them.\u00a0 Besides the type of regime, economic systems are also important to consider how states participate.\u00a0 The type of economic system\u2014whether capitalist, socialist, communist, or hybrid constrains how states negotiate in trade, accept foreign direct investment (FDI), economic development, and equitable access to goods and services.\u00a0 The ability of a state to see how it can benefit from a situation potentially promotes or hinders an international negotiation.\u00a0 For example, the current negotiations between the U.S and North Korea can be perceived as a hindrance to North Korea, because nuclear weapons are a bargaining chip for its regional power.\u00a0 The level of domestic participation in areas of legitimate government, political transparency, free and open elections, free press, and the opportunity for individuals in civil society can be predictive elements of state behavior in the international system.\r\n\r\nStates have tangible and intangible variables that scholars have used to measure and predict a state\u2019s actions.\u00a0 The following are examples of each:\r\n\r\n<strong>Tangible Variables<\/strong>: population and demographics, military capability, natural resources or lack thereof, geography, geopolitical borders, and history\r\n\r\n<strong>Intangible Variables<\/strong>: culture, norms, values (e.g. human rights, promotion of equality and opportunity, and civil liberties).\r\n\r\nThese variables can be useful in placing countries in the international system.\u00a0 It is also a means used to rank countries, for example, the index of \u2026 [provide example or examples].\r\n\r\n<strong>International Level of Analysis<\/strong>\r\n\r\nIn general, international relations scholars accept that the international system is anarchic, because there is not an overarching institution that is above the states that offers deterrence and punitive enforcement for non-compliance.\u00a0 International interaction among states is multifaceted: regional, bilateral, international governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), MNCs, etc.\u00a0 Power is an important issue because of the anarchic nature of the international system.\u00a0 Distribution of power is limited, because of the inequality among states.\u00a0 In the international system, displays of power are identifiable.\u00a0 For example, hard power consists of coercive power, threats, and the use of negative incentives.\u00a0 Many times, states use military power as a form of coercive action.\r\n\r\nJohn Mearsheimer and power; the following video describes power:\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/o5oOtI_ehOE[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=o5oOtI_ehOE\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Or click here to watch the video!<\/a>\r\n\r\nSoft power is an example of power exercised by states like persuasion.\u00a0 States measure their power in a context.\u00a0 Soft power can be exemplified on how states use their position in the international system.\u00a0 For example, exchange students, study abroad programs, and international students, are all a means of cultural and educational exchanges that promote soft power.\r\n\r\nJoseph Nye and power; the following video describes soft power:\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/ehgHglSw1Io[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ehgHglSw1Io\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Or click here to watch the video!<\/a>\r\n\r\nPower itself is not contested; what is a point of argumentation, however, is how power is measured, how it is executed, and how successful or not it is.\u00a0 It is therefore critical to study other actors and elements of the international system, like international law, international institutions, non-governmental organizations, to name a few.\r\n\r\n<strong>International Law<\/strong>\r\n\r\nInternational law helps define responsibilities of states and their behavior with each other.\u00a0 International law is not without its critics.\u00a0 International law was not able to stop either World War I or World War II.\u00a0 It is difficult to hold countries accountable and it lacks enforcement\u2014as in the case of the 2003 invasion of Iraq forged by the U.S. and the coalition.\u00a0 Declarations, such as the Human Rights Declaration of 1948, are difficult to enforce or to provide for punitive action.\u00a0 This is because they are not law, and are therefore, not enforceable.\u00a0 Declarations are agreements based on values and accepted norms of behavior that reflect common ethical goals.\r\n\r\nViolations of treaties and violations of accepted and codified law, are enforceable via sanctions and other punitive actions deemed necessary by members of the international community.\u00a0 International law provides for a framework as in the case of Antarctica with treaties and protocols <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ats.aq\/index_e.html\">Article: Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only<\/a>.\u00a0 It also stipulates procedure like in the case of Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 (NPT) <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/disarmament\/wmd\/nuclear\/npt\/\">Click here to read the treaty<\/a>. \u00a0For the most part, international law like the examples mentioned above, and treaties are categorized as customary law.\u00a0 Sub-areas of customary law are: humanitarian and peace law, law of war, law of diplomacy, and responsibility to protect (R2P).\u00a0 When it comes to issues covered by international law, they are diverse.\u00a0 A few of the many examples that could be listed are shown below.\r\n<table class=\"grid landscape aligncenter\" style=\"height: 268px;\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr class=\"shaded\" style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px; text-align: center;\"><strong>Topic<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px; text-align: center;\"><strong>Law Information (websites)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Refugees<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/refugee-law\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/refugee-law\/<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Refugees<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unhcr.org\/publications\/legal\/3d4aba564\/refugee-protection-guide-international-refugee-law-handbook-parliamentarians.html\">https:\/\/www.unhcr.org\/publications\/legal\/3d4aba564\/refugee-protection-guide-international-refugee-law-handbook-parliamentarians.html<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Environment and Climate Change<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/land-property-environment\/environmental-law\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/land-property-environment\/environmental-law\/<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Environment and Climate Change<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.asil.org\/sites\/default\/files\/ERG_ENVIROMENT.pdf\">https:\/\/www.asil.org\/sites\/default\/files\/ERG_ENVIROMENT.pdf<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Prisoners of War<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hg.org\/prisoners-of-war.html\">https:\/\/www.hg.org\/prisoners-of-war.html<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Genocide<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/genocideprevention\/documents\/atrocity-crimes\/Doc.32_GC-III-EN.pdf\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/genocideprevention\/documents\/atrocity-crimes\/Doc.32_GC-III-EN.pdf<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 218.547px;\">Human Rights<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/sections\/universal-declaration\/foundation-international-human-rights-law\/index.html\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/sections\/universal-declaration\/foundation-international-human-rights-law\/index.html<\/a>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Space<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/oosa\/en\/ourwork\/spacelaw\/treaties.html\">https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/oosa\/en\/ourwork\/spacelaw\/treaties.html<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Water<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.internationalwaterlaw.org\/blog\/category\/international-water-law\/\">https:\/\/www.internationalwaterlaw.org\/blog\/category\/international-water-law\/<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Water<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000185080\">https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000185080<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 218.547px;\">Human Trafficking\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/transnational-threats\/trafficking-in-persons\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/transnational-threats\/trafficking-in-persons\/<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Human Trafficking<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/unodc\/en\/human-trafficking\/what-is-human-trafficking.html?ref=menuside\">https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/unodc\/en\/human-trafficking\/what-is-human-trafficking.html?ref=menuside<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe diversity of issues that have provisions and protections under international law demonstrate the willingness of the international community to manage and work with reciprocity and in \u2018good faith\u2019 to establish a common set of values.\u00a0 While self-interest continues to be key to how and to why a state chooses to follow international law and norm, the current system benefits cooperation.\r\n\r\n<strong>International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe post-World War II world gained a slew of organizations designed to provide ample cooperation among states in an increasingly diverse international system.\u00a0 International organizations provide for arbitration in some cases and in other cases it offers expectations and predictability.\u00a0 International organizations like the United Nations (UN) Security Council vote on resolutions such as war.\u00a0 The UN was formed in 1945 at the end of World War II.\u00a0 The failure of the League of Nations after World War I and the subsequent World War II, twenty years later, provided for a strong argument to support the UN in 1945.\u00a0 The United Nations offers a chance for states to understand power, and for people to understand their right to self-government and sovereignty.\u00a0 The UN was created with six bodies: The General Assembly with 193 members (today\u2019s number), the Security Council (five permanent members\u2014United Kingdom, United States, Russia, China, France, and ten rotating non-permanent members voted in by the General Assembly), Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), The Trusteeship Council, The Secretariat, and International Court of Justice (ICJ)\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/sections\/about-un\/main-organs\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">United Nations: Main Bodies<\/a>.\r\n\r\nAfter World War II, six countries in Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).\u00a0 This organization became essential for European economic stability post World War II by providing countries in Europe with more reason to cooperate than to defect.\u00a0 The European Economic Community (EEC) emerged, and by the 1980s the enlargement of the EEC proved that law making is stronger at the European Union (EU) than at the UN \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/europa.eu\/european-union\/about-eu\/history_en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Article: The History of the European Union<\/a>. \u00a0\u00a0Today, the EU is a power to counterbalance states like the United States and Russia.\u00a0 The EU has 27 member-states.\u00a0 The institutional bodies key to the function of a well-established economic, political, and social union are the following: the European Parliament, European Council, Council of the European Union, European Commission, Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), European Central Bank (ECB), European Court of Auditors, European External Action Service, European Economic and Social Committee, European Committee of the Regions, European Investment Bank, European Ombudsman, European Data Protection Supervisor, European Data Protection Board, and Interinstitutional Bodies <a href=\"https:\/\/europa.eu\/european-union\/about-eu\/institutions-bodies_en\">EU Institutions and Bodies<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe UN has global reach along with International Monetary Fund,[12] World Bank,[13] The World Trade Organization,[14] and Interpol.[15]\u00a0 These organizations promote human security, policing action, military action (UN\u2019s blue helmets), economic stability, and economic assistance.\u00a0 Their role is to facilitate interaction and exchanges among states and among peoples.\u00a0 Yet the increase of regional organizations offers an alternative to the concept of hegemony.\u00a0 The global presence of regional international governmental organizations (IGOs) like ASEAN,[16] AU,[17] the IAEA,[18] MERCOSUR, provide evidence of how regionalism have a legitimate place in the international system.\u00a0 Fluidity of relations appears to provide challenges that make for cooperation in a globalized world more likely to succeed.\u00a0 Regional and global cooperation provide an alternative to zero sum game.\u00a0\u00a0 It is harder today for China to claim regional moral high ground when President Xi Jinping promotes domestic policies like \u201creeducation\u201d of the Uyghur population in detention camps <a href=\"https:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/china-uighurs-leaked-govt-cables-cant-deny-2019-11\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Article: Devastating leaks have deprived China of its main strategy to deflect mounting evidence of its mass oppression of Uighur Muslims<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe African Union\u2019s work on COVID-19 provide for an example of regional collaboration when the declaration of April 16, 2020 states that: \u201cKeeping the national borders open for food and agriculture commodity trade so as not to disrupt regional and interregional trade in food and agriculture products and inputs.\u201d[19] Regional organizations are making attempts to manage this pandemic and developing strategies for regional and global inter-state cooperation as the African Union\u2019s work demonstrates.\r\n\r\n<strong>Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSince the 1990s there has been an explosion of NGOs with international interests motivated to act based on a variety of transnational issues.\u00a0 NGOs work to advocate, to lobby, to operationalize action and to engage in protest.\u00a0 Generally, NGOS are international actors that focus on one issue and to advance a cause.\u00a0 Some NGOs provide for goods and services to those in need, others do research, others provide for expertise, etc. The participation of NGOs in the international system transforms the landscape by working on issues that demand broad cooperation by multiple actors.\u00a0 This is particularly true when issues like malaria happen.\u00a0 Malaria affects disproportionately poor countries.\u00a0 Less-developed countries (LDCs) going through a malaria crisis have depended on NGOs like The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.\u00a0 NGOs like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation work to provide life-saving aid to populations in less developed states.\u00a0 In the process, partnership among international actors is necessary: \u201cwe can save millions more lives by addressing the high-burden countries, in partnership with affected countries, donors and technical partners. [\u2026]\u00a0 We also advocate for sustained and increased funding of malaria-related efforts by donor government and affected countries.\u201d[20]\u00a0\u00a0 This NGO provides for accountability in global governance as well as global partnerships.\u00a0 Human Rights Watch, not surprisingly, promotes human rights.\u00a0 One strategy it and other NGOs use is to embarrass states, and states can be sensitive to this strategy.\u00a0 Human Rights Watch provided low-level shaming in an article written by Maria Laura Canineu titled: \u201cBrazil Needs More Pesticide Regulation, Not Less.\u201d\u00a0 Canineu writes that:\r\n\r\nAnother pesticide found in samples of lettuce is atrazine, which the European Union banned in 2003 because it interferes with reproduction and human development, and may cause cancer.\u00a0 It\u2019s legal in Brazil, though. [\u2026] One of the rights celebrated that say is the right to food, which includes the right to food safety.\u00a0 Another is the right to health, which depends on a decent, well-regulated food supply.\u00a0 Ensuring both these rights requires ensuring safe levels of toxins, bacteria, and other substances that can make food injurious to health.[21]\r\n\r\nBy pointing out the issues with food security and framing them as a human right, Human Rights Watch is putting Brazil, the state, on alert regarding the issue of food safety and food as human right.\u00a0 In this case, the NGO points out how the state fails to protect the nation (its population).\r\n\r\nTo provide a perspective of international activities, the following is a table that contains a few NGOs, some widely known IGOs, and some international conferences.\r\n<table class=\"grid landscape aligncenter\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr class=\"shaded\">\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>IGOs<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>NGOs<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Conferences<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>UN\u2014United Nations<\/td>\r\n<td>Doctors Without Borders<\/td>\r\n<td>UN Women\u2019s Conferences 1975, 1980, 1985, 1995<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>EU\u2014European Union<\/td>\r\n<td>Reporters Without Borders<\/td>\r\n<td>UN Environment and Development 1992<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>ASEAN\u2014Association of Southeast Asian Nations<\/td>\r\n<td>Human Rights Watch<\/td>\r\n<td>UN Human Rights 1968, 1993<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>IAEA\u2014International Atomic Energy Agency<\/td>\r\n<td>International Rescue Committee<\/td>\r\n<td>UN Human Environment 1972<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>AU\u2014African Union<\/td>\r\n<td>Afghan Women\u2019s Network<\/td>\r\n<td>UN Climate Change Summit 2019<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>MERCOSUR\u2014South American Regional Economic Organization<\/td>\r\n<td>Greenpeace<\/td>\r\n<td>Doha Conference (2001, 2008, 2012)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>League of Arab States<\/td>\r\n<td>Caritas<\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>Global Forum on Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security<\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe challenges in international relations regarding transnational issues require complex solutions and consistent state cooperation.\u00a0 Some solutions have been beneficial to many, such as the UN Millennium Development Goals.[22]\u00a0 States acting in their own interest, face challenges when human security and state security clash.\u00a0 Transnational issues demonstrate that clash and the challenges produced.\r\n\r\n<strong>Transnational Issues: The Challenges<\/strong>\r\n\r\nInterconnection among individuals has been growing due to people\u2019s movement as well as broader access of technologies used for communicating.\u00a0 Transnational issues vary in time and space.\u00a0 Transnational problems are unpredictable.\u00a0 This promotes instability and uncertainty among states.\u00a0 Reactive actions have become the norm.\u00a0 For example, pandemics like COVID-19 demonstrate how difficult it is for states to prepare and how imperative it is for states to cooperate.\u00a0 Ultimately, some states have a reactive approach to problem solving, like the U.S.\u00a0 Another set of states such as Greece or Iceland has a proactive approach to the pandemic and the results of their actions when shared can benefit other states.\u00a0 The lack of global cooperation during COVID-19 has produced competition and hoarding of supplies.\u00a0 For example, in the United States, some of the states are competing in the global market for COVID-19 tests and PPE (protective personal equipment), like medical gowns and masks.\u00a0 This is in part because the U.S. was not prepared.\u00a0 South Korea, in contrast, has been proactive in sharing its resources, like COVID-19 tests.\u00a0 The World Health Organization (WHO) understands that epidemics and pandemics do not recognize geopolitics borders.\u00a0 WHO collects data, provides for predictive measures, and provides for expertise.\u00a0 If states are willing to collaborate, WHO can be a source of information for states to effectively manage global pandemics. \u00a0Cooperation and disagreements are typical of transnational reactions among states. \u00a0\u00a0The following transnational issues, microcredit, cyber warfare, climate migrants, and water will be addressed next.\r\n\r\n<strong>Microcredit <\/strong>\r\n\r\nMicrocredit has its proponents and its opponents.\u00a0 When Muhammad Yunus started to give small loans to Bangladeshi women, he did not predict how his efforts were creating a movement that would help many and would eventually lead to the creation of Grameen Bank.\u00a0 From the creation of Grameen bank to today, there are growing number of microcredit NGOs that provide help\u2014 mostly to women, children, and the poor in general.\u00a0 Criticism of microcredit is based on how it has not lifted people out of poverty.\u00a0 Microcredit also has its challenges with some organizations promoting cash transfers.\u00a0 Microcredit emphasizes return on capital investment and re-investment in the community, while cash transfers do not have an incentive to promote community partnerships.\u00a0 In theory, microcredit does the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>finances loans of a few hundred dollars<\/li>\r\n \t<li>promotes self-employment, and entrepreneurial skills<\/li>\r\n \t<li>allows for educational opportunities<\/li>\r\n \t<li>helps with housing<\/li>\r\n \t<li>provides for examples in the community<\/li>\r\n \t<li>leverages neighbor to neighbor micro-financing<\/li>\r\n \t<li>develops strategies for community engagement<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Student Activity<\/strong>:\r\n\r\nCompare and contrast two microcredit NGOs like Kiva <a href=\"https:\/\/www.kiva.org\">https:\/\/www.kiva.org<\/a> and Grameen Bank <a href=\"http:\/\/www.grameen.com\">http:\/\/www.grameen.com<\/a> .\u00a0 Answer the following questions:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>How do the two NGOs improve livelihoods?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare information posted on the websites about the organizations\u2019 board of directors, projects, funding, process for creating loans, where they operate, who has received loans, percentage of both loans in repayment and default, etc.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How does microcredit improve economic growth?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the impact of the loans on communities?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Read the articles.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze the information.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare the information from the articles.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify and analyze the pros and cons of microcredit.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/future-perfect\/2019\/1\/15\/18182167\/microcredit-microfinance-poverty-grameen-bank-yunus\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Article 1: Microcredit was a hugely hyped solution to global poverty. What happened?<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdfplus\/10.1257\/app.20140287\">Article 2:\u00a0 Six Randomized Evaluations of Microcredit: Introduction and Further Steps<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Cyber Warfare <\/strong>\r\n\r\nCyber warfare takes place between nation-states.\u00a0 These are strategic attacks to deliberately cause damage to the [capacity of action] [don\u2019t know what this means] and capability of the state to retaliate.\u00a0 The attacks are pre-determined and are politically motivated.\u00a0 This is not equivalent to a poor man\u2019s war.\u00a0 Cyber warfare often includes attacks on government computers and networks as well as MNCs.\u00a0 Government computer and internet systems are susceptible to various types of cyberattacks like malware, phishing, botnets, and distributed denial of service, among other more sophisticated forms of cyberattack and vandalism activities.\r\n\r\nEuropol has a useful website with information regarding the types of cyber crimes: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.europol.europa.eu\/crime-areas-and-trends\/crime-areas\/cybercrime\">Europol: Cybercrime<\/a>.\r\n\r\nNation-states engage in a variety of high level cybercrimes like ransomware and spyware.\u00a0 The types of assets that are vulnerable in this environment is not much different than with a conventional weapons attack: energy producing facilities, civilian populations, missile systems, key government systems, and some critical structures.\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0In many cases, the success of a mission depends on an inside person, a hacker or even a spy.\u00a0 The attack is often as simple as logging in to a specified computer, installing a USB, and opening a file attachment.\u00a0 Another problem with cyberattacks is that the attack is difficult to trace, especially in a short period of time. \u00a0\u00a0The Darknet offers hackers and cyber warfare participants a \u201csafe\u201d space to congregate.\u00a0 Forensic work aimed at catching cyber criminals is possible, but it is time consuming.\u00a0 At times, hackers leave a \u201cfingerprint\u201d albeit it can be difficult to identify.\u00a0 Cyber warfare provides for speculation and uncertainty.\u00a0 What we know is that of the attacks are nation-state to nation-state, while others involve the use of private groups in collaboration with nation-states to operationalize the cyberattack.\u00a0 Such attacks are designed to penetrate and to disable the perceived enemy.\u00a0 Another aspect of cyber warfare is how it produces a distraction while for a country that is also preparing to attack in more conventional ways.\r\n\r\nExamples of cyber warfare, cyber-attacks, and other cybercriminal activity are found in the Center for Strategic and International Studies website. \u00a0Following are additional articles on the topic:\r\n<table class=\"grid landscape aligncenter\" style=\"width: 1302px;\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr class=\"shaded\" style=\"height: 16px;\">\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center; height: 16px; width: 867.172px;\"><strong>Articles<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center; height: 16px; width: 406.453px;\"><strong>Organizations<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 62px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 867.172px;\">The Register, \u201cKremlin hacking crew went on a 'Roman Holiday' \u2013 researchers\u201d<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2018\/07\/16\/apt28_italian_job\/\">https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2018\/07\/16\/apt28_italian_job\/<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 406.453px;\">Center for Strategic and International Studies\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.csis.org\/programs\/technology-policy-program\/significant-cyber-incidents\">https:\/\/www.csis.org\/programs\/technology-policy-program\/significant-cyber-incidents<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 867.172px;\">The Guardian, \u201cRussia accused of series of international cyber-attacks<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/may\/13\/russia-accused-international-cyber-attacks-apt-28-sofacy-sandworm\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/may\/13\/russia-accused-international-cyber-attacks-apt-28-sofacy-sandworm<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 406.453px;\">The Rand Corporation\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/topics\/cyber-warfare.html\">https:\/\/www.rand.org\/topics\/cyber-warfare.html<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 867.172px;\">The Hill, \u201cNorth Korea\u2019s Nuclear Thread is Nothing Compared to Its Cyberwarfare\u201d\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/thehill.com\/opinion\/cybersecurity\/390601-north-koreas-nuclear-threat-is-nothing-compared-to-its-cyber-warfare\">https:\/\/thehill.com\/opinion\/cybersecurity\/390601-north-koreas-nuclear-threat-is-nothing-compared-to-its-cyber-warfare<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 406.453px;\">Interpol\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/Crimes\/Cybercrime\">https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/Crimes\/Cybercrime<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 93px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 93px; width: 867.172px;\">Forbes, \u201cCyberwarfare Will Explode In 2020 (Because It\u2019s Cheap, Easy And Effective)\u201d\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/steveandriole\/2020\/01\/14\/cyberwarfare-will-explode-in-2020-because-its-cheap-easy--effective\/#3f39b9596781\">https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/steveandriole\/2020\/01\/14\/cyberwarfare-will-explode-in-2020-because-its-cheap-easy--effective\/#3f39b9596781<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 93px; width: 406.453px;\">NATO Cooperative Cyber Defense Centre of Excellence\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/ccdcoe.org\">https:\/\/ccdcoe.org<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 62px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 867.172px;\"><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 406.453px;\">Europol\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.europol.europa.eu\/about-europol\/european-cybercrime-centre-ec3\">https:\/\/www.europol.europa.eu\/about-europol\/european-cybercrime-centre-ec3<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nCyber warfare is the new Cold War.\u00a0 Hackers tend to fall into three categories: 1) government sponsored; 2) independent hackers, and 3) governmental agencies.\u00a0 Motives are not too different from those of the Cold War: power, competition, and self-interest.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nStudy the Cold War strategies.\u00a0 Study the current strategies of cyber war.\u00a0 Then compare and contrast them.\u00a0 Consider the following questions: Who gains?\u00a0 Who loses?\u00a0 What are the issues at stake?\u00a0 How is power being used?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Climate Migrants <\/strong>\r\n\r\nClimate or environmental migrants are increasing as a result of climate change.\u00a0 Sweden was one of the first countries to construct \u201ca special category as a \u2018person in need of protection\u2019 who is unable to return to his native country because of an environmental disaster.\u201d[23]\u00a0 Climate migrants are a newer development in international politics.\u00a0 The Migration, Environment and Climate Change (MECC) Division of the UN Migration Agency (IOM) prefers the term climate migrants to climate refugees.\u00a0 The argument made to call these individuals migrants is based on maintaining the integrity of the 1951 Refugee Convention.\u00a0 Another element is how the term \u2018refugee\u2019 fails to address the specific challenges faced by persons who migrate due to climate.\u00a0 \u201cIn 2018 alone, 17.2 million new displacements associated with disasters in 148 countries and territories were recorder (IDMC) and 764,000 people in Somalia, Afghanistan and several other countries were displaced following drought (IOM).\u201d[24]\u00a0 Managing these crises require empathy alongside responsibility and sound global policies.\u00a0 These global policies are environmental, ecological, and climatic in nature.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nWhat is the correlation between climate change related events and the increased number of climate migrants?\u00a0 What regions are most affected and why?\u00a0 What are the specific issues that motivate individuals to become climate migrants?\u00a0 Are these individuals refugees or migrants?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Water issues<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBased on the Water Convention (adopted in 1992, in full force by 1996, and in 2016 all UN members accede), water issues are complex, require collaboration, demand transparency, promote the exchange of ideas and practices, and require good behavior. \u00a0Transboundary watercourses involve the maintenance of waterway obligations, both downstream and upstream, as well as international lakes and aquifers.\u00a0 By no means is this an exhaustive list of issues that involve water; however, these are useful and should be considered as examples:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Equity in water distribution<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Environmental protections and environmental assessments<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sustainable development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sustainable agriculture<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Urban growth<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Human health and safety<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pollution<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ecology<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Alert systems<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Technological integration<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Food<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Clean, safe, and potable water<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe collaborative efforts in countries from Africa, to Europe, and to Central Asia demonstrate that exchange of good practices, respect for obligations, and adoption of soft international law and protocols is not only possible, but is actionable.\u00a0 It is necessary to create and protect good practices to save international transboundary water systems.\u00a0 \u201cTransboundary water cooperation has the potential to generate many significant benefits for cooperating countries, such as accelerated economic growth, improved well-being, enhanced environmental sustainability and increased political stability.\u201d[25]\r\n\r\nTransnational issues reveal how important international relations is today.\u00a0 The complexity of the issues and the goals of international actors allow international scholars to study events in a multilayered approach.\u00a0 Transnational topics offer insight on human actions and their implications in a globalized world.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Conclusion<\/h3>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nGenerally speaking, international relations scholars and students produce more questions than answers.\u00a0 Realism, liberalism, constructivism, radical theories, and feminism are theories that explain and analyze how the international system functions. \u00a0The international community is not only difficult to define and analyze, it is also intrinsically oriented to live on with a lack of consensus.\u00a0 History demonstrates how resilient humans are.\u00a0 States work on survival of their interests and on maintaining power.\u00a0 Levels of analysis allow scholars various angles and explanations for understanding international events.\u00a0 International organizations have a history of promoting peace, mediation, and accommodation.\u00a0 Human struggles may be different in the 21st century as compared to previous history, but humans are no strangers to the concept of struggle and survival.\u00a0 Lessons from multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar international systems provide international relations scholars with models and predictability.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h4 class=\"textbox__title\">Further Resources<\/h4>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nInternational Water Resources Association: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.iwra.org\">https:\/\/www.iwra.org<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.unwater.org\/water-facts\/transboundary-waters\/\">https:\/\/www.unwater.org\/water-facts\/transboundary-waters\/<\/a>\r\n\r\n<strong>Japan<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/past\/docs\/issues\/89apr\/defend.htm\">https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/past\/docs\/issues\/89apr\/defend.htm<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/japan-governor-wants-us-stop-new-marines-base-reduce-presence-1195826\">https:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/japan-governor-wants-us-stop-new-marines-base-reduce-presence-1195826<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/timeline.com\/japanese-people-want-the-us-military-out-and-theyve-rioted-over-it-in-the-past-2433eb9e02d1\">https:\/\/timeline.com\/japanese-people-want-the-us-military-out-and-theyve-rioted-over-it-in-the-past-2433eb9e02d1<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/foreignpolicy.com\/2019\/09\/04\/american-bases-in-japan-are-sitting-ducks\/\">https:\/\/foreignpolicy.com\/2019\/09\/04\/american-bases-in-japan-are-sitting-ducks\/<\/a>\r\n\r\n<strong>Turkey<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2016\/jul\/16\/isis-airstrike-turkey-airspace-us-air-force\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2016\/jul\/16\/isis-airstrike-turkey-airspace-us-air-force<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2003\/WORLD\/europe\/03\/20\/sprj.irq.turkey.vote\/index.html\">https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2003\/WORLD\/europe\/03\/20\/sprj.irq.turkey.vote\/index.html<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/news\/turkey-gives-airspace-use-ok\/\">https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/news\/turkey-gives-airspace-use-ok\/<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/jmd\/international-courts\">https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/jmd\/international-courts<\/a>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/international-hybrid-criminal-courts-tribunals\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/international-hybrid-criminal-courts-tribunals\/<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Notes\r\n<\/strong>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[1] Carl von Clausewitz,\u00a0<em>On War,<\/em> Translated by J. J. Graham, Chatham: Kent Wordsworth Editions, 1997 [1827], 333, 335,\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[2] Correlates of War, \u201cAbout the Correlates of War Project,\u201d Correlates of War, accessed September 27, 2021, https:\/\/correlatesofwar.org\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[3] G.E.M. de Ste. Croix, <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>, \u00a0Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd.: London, 1972, 339.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[4] G.E.M. de Ste. Croix, <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>, 340.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[5] G. E. M. de St. Croix, <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>, 98.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[6] NATO is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization with a focus on Atlantic security of the U.S. and its allies in Europe. It is a mutual defense organization.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[7] WARSAW Pact was created to promote the security of USSR and its allies as a response to NATO\u2019s creation.\u00a0 It was a collective security organization.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[8] MERCOSUR, \u201cMercosur Official Website,\u201d MERCOSUR, 2021, https:\/\/www.mercosur.int\/en\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[9] David Vivas-Eugui, \u201cRegional and Bilateral Agreements and a TRIPS-plus World: the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA),\u201d Geneva: Quaker United Nations Office, 2003.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[10] Carranza, \u201cMERCOSUR, The Free Trade Area of The Americas and the Future of U.S. Hegemony in Latin America,\u201d <em>Fordham International Law Journal<\/em> 27, n. 3 (2003), 1063-64.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[11] Realism does not mean conservatism.\u00a0 Liberalism does not \u201cliberal\u201d in our current political context.\u00a0 These are not domestic attributes, concepts, or theories.\u00a0 In international relations, they have their own identity and they are independent theories from domestic interpretation.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[12] International Monetary Fund, \u201cInternational Monetary Fund - Homepage,\u201d IMF, 2021, https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/home.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[13] The World Bank Group, \u201cWorld Bank Group - International Development, Poverty, &amp;amp; Sustainability,\u201d World Bank, 2021, https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/home.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[14] World Trade Organization, \u201cWorld Trade Organization - Global Trade,\u201d World Trade Organization - Home page - Global trade, 2021, https:\/\/www.wto.org\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[15] INTERPOL, \u201cThe International Criminal Police Organization,\u201d INTERPOL, 2021, https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[16] Mustika Larasati Hapsoro, \u201cASEAN Member States Adopt Regional Action Plan to Tackle Plastic Pollution,\u201d Association of Southeast Asian Nations, May 28, 2021, https:\/\/asean.org\/asean-member-states-adopt-regional-action-plan-to-tackle-plastic-pollution\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[17] \u201cHome,\u201d Home | African Union (The African Union Commission), accessed September 27, 2021, https:\/\/au.int\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[18] International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), \u201cOfficial Web Site of the IAEA,\u201d International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2021), https:\/\/www.iaea.org\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[19] African Union Commission, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. \u201cMeeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition during the COVID-19 Pandemic.\u201d Meeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition During the COVID-19 Pandemic | African Union. The African Union Commission, April 27, 2020. https:\/\/au.int\/en\/pressreleases\/20200427\/meeting-african-ministers-agriculture-declaration-food-security-and-nutrition, 6.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[20] Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. \u201cMalaria: Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation.\u201d Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/www.gatesfoundation.org\/our-work\/programs\/global-health\/malaria, Accessed 4\/29\/2020.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[21] Maria Laura Canineu, \u201cBrazil Needs More Pesticide Regulation, Not Less,\u201d Human Rights Watch, December 23, 2019, https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2019\/12\/23\/brazil-needs-more-pesticide-regulation-not-less#. Accessed 4\/29\/2020.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[22] United Nations. \u201cUnited Nations Millennium Development Goals.\u201d United Nations. United Nations. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/www.un.org\/millenniumgoals\/. Accessed 5\/12\/2020\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[23] Oli Brown, <em>Migration and Climate Change<\/em>, (Geneva: International Organization for Migration, Migration Series n. 31, 2008), 39.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[24] Ionesco, \u201cLet\u2019s Talk About Climate Migrants, Not Climate Refugees\u201d 06 June 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/.<\/a> Accessed 05\/05\/2020; IOM, \u201cIOM UN Migration,\u201d International Organization for Migration, 2021, https:\/\/www.iom.int\/.; IDMC, \u201cIDMC,\u201d IDMC, 2021, https:\/\/www.internal-displacement.org\/.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[25] UNECE, \u201cConvention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes: The Water Convention: Responding to Global Water Challenges,\u201d 2018, 9.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">African Union Commission, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. \u201cMeeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition during the COVID-19 Pandemic.\u201d Meeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition During the COVID-19 Pandemic | African Union. The African Union Commission, April 27, 2020. <a href=\"https:\/\/au.int\/en\/pressreleases\/20200427\/meeting-african-ministers-agriculture-declaration-food-security-and-nutrition\">https:\/\/au.int\/en\/pressreleases\/20200427\/meeting-african-ministers-agriculture-declaration-food-security-and-nutrition<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Banerjee, Abhijit, Dean Karlan and Jonathan Zinman. \u201cSix Randomized Evaluations of Micro Credit: Introduction and Further Steps.\u201d <em>American Economic Journal: Applied Economics<\/em> 7, n. 1 (2015): 1-21.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bentham, Jeremy. <em>An Introduction to the Principle of Morals and Legislation<\/em>. Oxford: Oxford At the Clarendon Press 1823 (1780, 1789).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. \u201cMalaria: Bill &amp;amp; Melinda Gates Foundation.\u201d Bill &amp;amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/www.gatesfoundation.org\/our-work\/programs\/global-health\/malaria.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Brown, Oli. <em>Migration and Climate Change<\/em> (Geneva: International Organization for Migration, Migration Series n. 31, 2008). Accessed 05\/04\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Canineu, Maria Laura. \u201cBrazil Needs More Pesticide Regulation, Not Less.\u201d Human Rights Watch, December 23, 2019. https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2019\/12\/23\/brazil-needs-more-pesticide-regulation-not-less#.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cardoso, Fernando Henrique and Enzo Faletto. <em>Dependency and Development in Latin America<\/em>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Carr, Edward Hallett. <em>The Twenty Years\u2019 Crisis, 1919-1939: Introduction to the Study of International Relations<\/em>. New York: Harper Perennial. 1964 (1939).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Carranza, Mario E. \u201cMERCOSUR, The Free Trade Area of The Americas and the Future of U.S. Hegemony in Latin America.\u201d <em>Fordham International Law Journal<\/em> 27, n. 3 (2003), 1028-1069.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Clark, Ann Marie, Elisabeth J. Friedman, and Kathryn Hochsteller. \u201cThe Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN Work Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women.\u201d <em>World Politics<\/em> 51, n. 1 (October, 1998), 1-35.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Clausewitz, Carl Von. <em>On War<\/em>. Translated by J. J. Graham. Chatham: Kent Wordsworth Editions, 1997 [1827].<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Correlates of War. \u201cAbout the Correlates of War Project.\u201d Correlates of War. Accessed September 27, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/correlatesofwar.org\/\">https:\/\/correlatesofwar.org\/<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Croix, G. E. M. de Ste. <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>. Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd.: London, 1972.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Curtis, Michael. <em>The Great Political Theories, Volumes 1 and 2<\/em>. New York: Avon Books, 1981.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Derian, James Der. <em>Critical Practices in International Theory: Selected Essays<\/em>.\u00a0 New York: Routledge, 2009.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Doyle, Michael W. <em>Ways of War and Peace<\/em>. New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company, Inc., 1997.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Enloe, Cynthia. <em>Bananas, Beaches, and Bases<\/em>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Grote, George. <em>A History of Greece<\/em>. Volume II. New York: American Book Exchange, 1881.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hobbes, Thomas. <em>Leviathan<\/em>. Edited by Michael Oakeshott. New York: Collier Books, 1962 (1651).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hobson, John A.\u00a0 <em>Imperialism: A Study<\/em>. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2005 (1902). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/international-hybrid-criminal-courts-tribunals\/\">http:\/\/oll-resources.s3.amazonaws.com\/titles\/278\/0175_Bk.pdf<\/a>\u00a0 Accessed 05\/13\/2020 Digitally formatted by Online Liberty Fund<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">\u201cHome.\u201d Home | African Union. The African Union Commission. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/au.int\/.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Human Rights Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/topics\/cyber-warfare.html\">https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2019\/12\/23\/brazil-needs-more-pesticide-regulation-not-less#<\/a> accessed 4\/29\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">IDMC. IDMC, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.internal-displacement.org\/\">https:\/\/www.internal-displacement.org\/<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">International Monetary Fund. \u201cInternational Monetary Fund - Homepage.\u201d IMF, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/home\">https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/home<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). \u201cOfficial Web Site of the IAEA.\u201d International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2021. https:\/\/www.iaea.org\/.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">INTERPOL. \u201cThe International Criminal Police Organization.\u201d INTERPOL, 2021. https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">IOM. \u201cIOM UN Migration.\u201d International Organization for Migration, 2021. https:\/\/www.iom.int\/.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ionesco, Dina. \u201cLet\u2019s Talk About Climate Migrants, Not Climate Refugees.\u201d 06 June 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/thehill.com\/opinion\/cybersecurity\/390601-north-koreas-nuclear-threat-is-nothing-compared-to-its-cyber-warfare\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/<\/a> Accessed 05\/05\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Kennan, George F.\u00a0 <em>Memoirs 1925-1950<\/em>. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Kissinger, Henry. <em>American Foreign Policy: Three Essays<\/em>. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1977, 3rd edition.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Larasati Hapsoro, Mustika. \u201cASEAN Member States Adopt Regional Action Plan to Tackle Plastic Pollution.\u201d Association of Southeast Asian Nations, May 28, 2021. https:\/\/asean.org\/asean-member-states-adopt-regional-action-plan-to-tackle-plastic-pollution\/.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Lenin, V.I. <em>Imperialism, The Highest State of Capitalism<\/em>. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1997.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Locke, John. <em>Two Treatises of Government.<\/em> Edited by Peter Laslett. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 (1690).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Luxemburg, Rosa.\u00a0 <em>The Accumulation of Capital<\/em>. Translated by Agnes Schwazschild. New Haven: Yale Press, 1951. Guttenberg Project November 19 2012, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2018\/07\/16\/apt28_italian_job\/\">https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/41405\/41405-h\/41405-h.htm<\/a> Accessed 05\/13\/2020.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Machiavelli, Niccol\u00f2. <em>The Prince. <\/em>Edited by and Translated by Peter Bondanella and Mark Musa. New York: Penguin Books, 1979 (1532).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Mearshemeir, John J. Conventional Deterrence. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Mearshemeir, John J. \u201cJohn Mearshemeir,\u201d YouTube video, 7:35, July 3, 2017.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">MERCOSUR, \u201cMercosur Official Website,\u201d MERCOSUR, 2021, https:\/\/www.mercosur.int\/en\/.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Morgenthau, Hans. <em>Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace<\/em>. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992 (1948).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Nye, Jr., Joseph S. \u201cJoseph S. Nye, Jr.: What is Power?\u201d YouTube video, 8:23, April 19, 2016.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Nye, Jr., Joseph S. \"Soft Power and the Public Diplomacy Revisited.\"\u00a0<em>The Hague Journal of Diplomacy<\/em>\u00a014, n. 1-2 (April 2019): 1-14.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Nye, Jr., Joseph S. \u201cProtecting Democracy in an Era of Cyber Information War.\u201d February 2019.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. <em>The Social Contract and Discourses<\/em>. Translated by G.D. H. Cole.\u00a0 Charles E. Tuttle: Vermont, 1993.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Russett, Bruce. <em>Grasping The Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World<\/em>. Princeton: New Jersey Princeton University Press, 1993.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Schumpeter, Joseph A. <em>Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy<\/em>. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1976.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Smith, Adam.\u00a0 <em>Wealth of Nations<\/em>. Edited by Kathryn Sutherland. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1993 (1776).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">The World Bank Group. \u201cWorld Bank Group - International Development, Poverty, &amp;amp; Sustainability.\u201d World Bank, 2021. https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/home.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Thucydides.\u00a0 <em>History of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>. [431 BC] Translated by Richard Crawley. Guttenberg Project February 7 2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gatesfoundation.org\/What-We-Do\/Global-Health\/Malaria\">https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/7142\/7142-h\/7142-h.htm<\/a> Last accessed 05\/12\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tickner, J. Ann. <em>Gender In International Relations: Feminist Perspectives, On Achieving Global Security<\/em>. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tucker, Robert C., edited\u00a0 by. <em>The Marx-Engels Reader<\/em>. New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company, 1978, 2nd edition.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">UNECE, \u201cConvention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes: The Water Convention: Responding to Global Water Challenges,\u201d 2018, 9. Accessed 5\/5\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), \u201cConvention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes: The Water Convention: Responding to Global Water Challenges,\u201d Geneva, 2018. <a href=\"https:\/\/ccdcoe.org\">http:\/\/www.unece.org\/fileadmin\/DAM\/env\/water\/publications\/brochure\/Brochures_Leaflets\/A4_trifold_en_web_2018.pdf<\/a> Accessed 5\/5\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">United Nations. \u201cUnited Nations Millennium Development Goals.\u201d United Nations. United Nations. Accessed September 27, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/millenniumgoals\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/millenniumgoals\/<\/a>. Accessed 5\/12\/2020.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Vivas-Eugui, David. \u201cRegional and Bilateral Agreements and a TRIPS-plus World: the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).\u201d Geneva: Quaker United Nations Office, 2003.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wallerstein, Immanuel. \u201cThe Itinerary of World-Systems Analysis; or How to Resist Becoming a Theory.\u201d Edited by J. Berger and M. Zelditch Jr. <em>New Directions in Contemporary Sociological Theory<\/em>. Lanham: Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2002, 358-376. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/\">https:\/\/iwallerstein.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/docs\/THEORY.pdf<\/a> Accessed 05\/13\/2020<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Walt, Stephen M. <em>The Origins of Alliances<\/em>. Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1987.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Waltz, Kenneth. <em>Man the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis<\/em>. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wendt, Alex. <em>Social Theory of International Politics<\/em>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">World Trade Organization. \u201cWorld Trade Organization - Global Trade.\u201d World Trade Organization - Home page - Global trade, 2021. https:\/\/www.wto.org\/.<\/p>","rendered":"<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Chapter 8: International Relations<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>No war is commenced or, at least, no war should be commenced if people acted wisely, without first seeking a reply to the question, What is to be attained by and in the same?\u00a0 \u2026 we shall have to grasp the idea that war, and the form which we give it, proceeds from ideas, feelings, and circumstances which dominate for the moment \u2026 war may be a thig which is sometimes war in a greater, sometimes in a lesser degree.[1]<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Students will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify the various international relations theories (realism, liberalism, radical theories, constructivism, and feminism)<\/li>\n<li>Analyze global issues through an International Relations perspective<\/li>\n<li>Evaluate topics as a global citizen<\/li>\n<li>Develop an understanding of the role nation-states play in the international system beyond their own geopolitical space<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This chapter will briefly demonstrate to students the intersection of theory, history, practice, analysis, and predictability in an ever-evolving international system with diverse and complex actors.\u00a0 International relations\u2019 contribution to political science has been vast in both academia and among practitioners.\u00a0 For example, the work of J. David Singer in the War Correlates[2] illustrates these relationships.\u00a0 International relations broadened the research in political science, in particular, its understanding of state to state relations and in foreign policy.\u00a0 Human security has moved beyond national borders into the international system and the complexity of the issues requires collaboration and multiple actors.\u00a0 Human security is intrinsically political and political science methodologies along with international relations provide for effective analysis while looking for solutions.<\/p>\n<p><strong>History <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The Peloponnesian wars (431-405 B.C.) between Sparta and Athens were about balance of power and tensions between the two city-states and their respective leagues, the Delian League or the Athenian League, and the Peloponnesian League.\u00a0 Besides the great strategic game described by Thucydides, the leadership of important men like Pericles and Lysander and the role of Persia are some of the elements that international relations scholars can use for a historical analysis.\u00a0 The alliances are critically important for one\u2019s understanding of the international system.\u00a0 A Multipolar system is exemplified by the \u2018constitution of the Peloponnesian League\u2019 (550-366 B.C.).\u00a0\u00a0 The league\u2019s constitution provides for how alliances worked between Sparta and its allies.\u00a0 Alliances were important to avoid war and to strengthen their position in relation to a common enemy.\u00a0 The following is an example of such an alliance:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">I.(d) Each ally enjoyed, in theory, complete internal autonomy, but took an oath \u2018to have the same friends and enemies as the Spartans and to follow the Spartan withthersoever they may lead\u2019, and was consequently subject to Spartan dictation as far as foreign policy was concerned.[3]<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">3. During a war, Sparta was always in complete control of all military operations, by land and sea; and it was she who decided what campaigns would be conducted and provided the commanders.[4]<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">In order to hold her alliance together, Sparta on her side had to defend her allies from outside attack, whether from Argos or from beyond the Peloponnese, give them \u2018freedom and autonomy\u2019 (in a very special sense, as we shall see in a moment), and attach them to herself by making them acquiesce in their submission to her hegemony.\u00a0 If she broke her treaty obligations, the allies concerned, in theory, would automatically be released from theirs; although, of course in practice they might not dare to repudiate their treaties and thus \u2018revolt\u2019 from Sparta: This would depend on their strength relative to Sparta\u2019s and the external situation at the time.[5]<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Another historical element worth mentioning is the Thirty Years War and the resulting Treaty of Westphalia (1648).\u00a0 The result was a separation of church and state, recognition of state sovereignty, and geopolitical borders.<\/p>\n<p>The European religious wars of 1618-1648, known as the Thirty Years War, refocused power away from religious authority, the pope, to the states, kings.\u00a0 The assertiveness of kings to gain power promoted a new definition of both nation-state and sovereignty.\u00a0 The historic consequences of the Thirty Years War are multilayered. \u00a0By concentrating power on the state, kings learned to: 1) amass power and to give birth to an era later known as absolutism; 2) respect geopolitical borders in Europe and to assert their power in far-away lands, a process called colonialism; 3) rule with the concept of sovereignty in mind; and 4) respect the emergence of nation-states.\u00a0 Kings have secular power over \u201ctheir\u201d people and the church has power over their salvation\u2014separation of church and state.\u00a0 Building a national military, pulling power away from lords, solving border disputes, building trade, protecting rights of individuals, facilitating the movement of peoples were key issues that kings learned how to do diplomatically while demonstrating that they did not fear religious retaliation from Rome. The use of force to protect the state, geopolitical borders, resources, and population is now the sovereign\u2019s (king) responsibility.\u00a0 The idea that a feudal lord wants a castle by the sea to vacation in during the summer months was altered with the Treaty of Westphalia. \u00a0Feudal rebellions were crushed and international affairs were now part of the king\u2019s power as executive, as chief diplomat, and as foreign policy maker.<\/p>\n<p>Showing allegiance to the king not feudal lords became standard, and post-1648 it was the modus operandi for the state\u2019s economic and political life, or even perhaps, for its survival.\u00a0 As a result of the Thirty Years War and the Treaty of Westphalia, countries increased diplomatic ties with each other, not via Rome.\u00a0 Who had power?\u00a0 What alliances shall be drawn?\u00a0 What helped shape international law?\u00a0 Common interests in the high seas led to the Law of the Seas and management of piracy.\u00a0 Alliances were flimsy.\u00a0 A multipolar system was established with states possessing a naval power, and as such, these states were perceived as powerful.\u00a0 While domestic power in terms of \u201cmilitary boots\u201d on the ground was key, international affairs was shifting to challenge colonial powers like: Portugal, Spain, Britain, Holland, France, Italy, and yes, even Denmark.\u00a0 States started to demand their fair share of colonies and access to the seas.\u00a0 Previously, the pope had divided the world with the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 between the Portuguese and the Spanish.\u00a0 The Westphalian world created a new challenge, because colonial expansion depended on the strong and strategic naval capacity of states.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Multipolar system<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A multipolar system occurs when states create alliances among themselves that last only until one state perceives that it no longer benefits from that alliance.\u00a0 Switching alliances is expected among states in the international system.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_51\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-51\" style=\"width: 167px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-47\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/09\/Multipolar-300x269.jpg\" alt=\"Multipolar System\" width=\"167\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/09\/Multipolar-300x269.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/09\/Multipolar-65x58.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/09\/Multipolar-225x202.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/09\/Multipolar.jpg 336w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 167px) 100vw, 167px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-51\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3.1 Multipolar system<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>England and Portugal are known to have the oldest alliance in Europe.\u00a0 States made alliances with each other as long as they perceived a benefit.\u00a0 If another state offered a \u201cbetter deal,\u201d alliances<span style=\"font-size: 14pt; text-align: initial;\"> were likely to shift.\u00a0 This system was in place until the end of World War II.\u00a0 The multipolar world is best described as two countries or more with power and capacity to act and to make alliances that have short- to medium-term characteristics.\u00a0\u00a0 The effects of various historic events like revolutions, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789); dynastic interests during the 18th and 19th centuries; the continental blockade and the Napoleonic wars 1807-11; the concert of Europe (Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain); and the Berlin Conference 1884-85 (European claims on Africa) all demonstrate how alliances and state interests along with kings\u2019 interests, make the multipolar system critically complex.\u00a0 The multipolar world starting with the Peloponnesian wars and the shifts of alliances until World War II demonstrates the durability of this system.\u00a0 The various historical periods of the multipolar system show how the system works and evolves.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>Bipolar system<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_51\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-51\" style=\"width: 265px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-48\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar-300x170.jpg\" alt=\"Bipolar System\" width=\"265\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar-300x170.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar-65x37.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar-225x127.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar-350x198.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Bipolar.jpg 473w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 265px) 100vw, 265px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-51\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3.2 Bipolar system<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>When World War II ended in 1945, the historical multipolar system with its complex structure of alliances, gave room to a bipolar system with two super powers, the United States (U.S.) and the Soviet Union (USSR).\u00a0 At the end of World War II, U.S. and USSR stood with power in the following areas: military, economic, political, social capital, and values. \u00a0The period between 1945-1989 was called the Cold War.\u00a0 The world was struggling to make sense of what World War II had brought to their doorstep.\u00a0 While fascism did not end, Nazism and its atrocities did.\u00a0 Empires embarked on a decolonization process that would last decades.\u00a0 Peoples were gaining consciousness of their sovereignty and of self-governance.\u00a0 States were trying to rebuild, reaffirm their position, and reclaim power in an anarchic international system.\u00a0 The bipolar system demanded states to take sides with either the U.S. or with the USSR.\u00a0 The Cold War was a time to pick your battles.\u00a0 States formulated their alliances based on economic, military, and social interests.\u00a0 For example, political systems, like dictatorships, were overlooked as long as U.S. interests were protected and U.S. national security was prioritized.\u00a0 The U.S. and USSR created an arms race, a space race, and a technology race (perhaps, it was more like a technology gap.)\u00a0 The two powers had allies, willingly or not, to help advance their power and interests in the international system.\u00a0 The U.S. and allies created NATO in 1949.[6]\u00a0\u00a0 In 1955 as a response to NATO, the USSR created the Warsaw Pact.[7]\u00a0 Military arrangements were clearly important and a source of demonstrated power.\u00a0 During the Cold War, peace between the two superpowers was critically maintained as evidence suggests by the number of proxy and limited conflicts fought in places like Greece, Korea, Vietnam, Angola, Grenada, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Afghanistan to name only a few.\u00a0 The bipolar system worked to create stability and relative peace as no world war was fought between the period of 1945 to 1989.\u00a0 The bipolar system was made possible because economic systems supported the building up of militaries, and the development of technology created competition beyond the military.\u00a0 Nuclear power and ballistic systems helped support deterrence between the two superpowers and their allies.\u00a0 During this time, security distrust along with economic competition and differences in values produced tensions, which created misconceptions and misperceptions that would influence foreign policy for decades.\u00a0 D\u00e9tente evolved during the Nixon administration.\u00a0 This is known as a period of relaxation of tensions between the two superpowers.\u00a0 D\u00e9tente led to disarmament discussions and the SALT treaty in the 1980s.\u00a0 How does the Cold War end? \u00a0With a wall, a brick in the wall, the Berlin wall.\u00a0 The symbolism of the Berlin Wall being torn down in 1989 is important.\u00a0 Gorbachev negotiated with the west.\u00a0 Gorbachev envisioned a more open society, and perestroika and glasnost were his policies to achieve the society he thought necessary for that time.\u00a0 Popular culture had its impact as well.\u00a0 The emergence of popular culture and figures like Sting and his song \u201cRussians\u201d, the Culture Club with their song \u201cThe War Song\u201d, the film \u201cJudgment in Berlin\u201d (1988) among others helped to open East-West relations.\u00a0 The international system was going through another change during this time.\u00a0 The fall of the Berlin wall and the establishment of the Russian Federation in 1992 left the U.S. standing as a hegemonic power. A unipolar international system was beginning to emerge.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>Unipolar system<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_51\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-51\" style=\"width: 266px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-49\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Unipolar System\" width=\"266\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar-65x37.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar-225x127.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar-350x198.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Unipolar.jpg 381w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 266px) 100vw, 266px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-51\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3.3 Unipolar System<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The unipolar system is defined as having a single state with power and acting with hegemonic capacity.\u00a0 This period lasted from the years of 1989 to 2000. In the unipolar system, the U.S. was the sole superpower.\u00a0 Some scholars have challenged the hegemonic position of the U.S.\u00a0\u00a0 Othe<\/p>\n<p>r scholars have suggested that states turned to regional responses and diverted their attention regionally (an increase in regionalism, or reginal al<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_51\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-51\" style=\"width: 154px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-50\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Pool-of-allies.jpg\" alt=\"Alliances\" width=\"154\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Pool-of-allies.jpg 269w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Pool-of-allies-65x63.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Pool-of-allies-225x219.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 154px) 100vw, 154px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-51\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3.4 Alliances<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>liances among states).\u00a0 Regionalism offered states the ability to fill a power vacuum.\u00a0 The unipolar system saw a new challenge as the \u201cpool\u201d of allies\u00a0increased through regional alliances.\u00a0 The economic system changed; trade demands and expectations did as well.\u00a0 During the 1990s, the U.S. as de facto holder of hegemonic power, was challenged by unexpected states.\u00a0\u00a0The following\u00a0are examples of how the U.S.\u2019 power was chipped away:\u00a0 Japan asking the U.S. to withdraw its troops and Turkey challenging the U.S. in the Middle East in 2003 and in 2019.\u00a0 In 2003, Turkey first denied U.S. airspace, then they gave airspace permissions but denied the use of Turkish bases for an attack on Iraq.\u00a0 Further, Turkish President Erdogan made a bilateral arms deal with Russia in 2019.<\/p>\n<p>The United States has also lost some of its hegemonic power as suggested by Carranza in regard to MERCOSUR[8] and FTAA[9] agreement in Latin America: \u201cThe Miami Trade Ministerial Conference illustrates the limitations faced by the United States in its attempt to reassert hegemony in Latin America.\u00a0 [\u2026] Brazil and MERCOSUR successfully managed to balance U.S. power. [\u2026] The history of the FTAA negotiations shows the difficulties faced by the United States in consolidating hegemony over Latin America and the important role played by MERCOSUR as a counterweight to the exercise of U.S. structural power in the region.\u201d[10]\u00a0 The U.S.\u2019 unipolarity and hegemony were challenged in the first years of the 2000s.\u00a0 Regionalism started to form during this period.\u00a0 China started to concentrate its economic power with expansion of military power alongside a space race.\u00a0 China competes with Japan on a number of issues like South China Sea territory, and the cement market.\u00a0 The unipolar system of the 1990s is critically challenged by various events like the United States\u2019 War on Terror, the Great Recession of 2008, challenges to political systems with the Arab Spring, and more recently the emergence of populist governments challenging democracy.\u00a0 Polarity in the international system has been imagined and reimagined as global circumstances demand.\u00a0 History allows for examples to be discussed, but theoretical approaches allow for analysis and prediction.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Theories in International Relations<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>What is the purpose of international relations theories?\u00a0 Why should they be used?\u00a0 Most political scientists have been trained to admire and promote theories of international relations, in part because these theories provide structure and allow for explanations.\u00a0 Meanwhile, students want to know what is happening in the world: why states\u2019 reactions and behavior differ when faced with the same problems? \u00a0And in some cases, students want to know what they can do to solve a problem.\u00a0 How do students and their interests fit into the picture?\u00a0 Regardless of the level of altruism from students, political scientists remain firm that theory provides for a means to explain and make sense of wars, international law, genocides, famine, trade, environmental problems, and pandemics, to mention a few of the issues that affect one\u2019s life in this very intensely global world.<\/p>\n<p>Theories provide for a systematic and independent process, which allows investigators to analyze and predict phenomena.\u00a0 Using theories helps to legitimize ones studies and helps frame the study, the analysis, and the predictions.\u00a0 In this way, theories provide scholars with a \u201cframework\u201d to interpret phenomena.\u00a0 Theories are a tool of analysis.\u00a0 Why include theories, such as the following: realism, liberalism, constructivism, radical theories, and feminism?[11]\u00a0 These theories offer competing ideas and approaches. They are important because they reframe global issues and their complexities.\u00a0 The theories included therein are well-established theories and are well accepted by scholars of international relations. \u00a0Most importantly, these theories are studied and introduced to students at most undergraduate institutions.\u00a0 In international relations, theories focus mostly on the state as an actor in an anarchic international system.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Classical Realism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Realism offers a state level theory that proposes that the central actors in a global context, are states seeking power. \u00a0Realism argues that the battle for power and preserving power is critical for state survival.\u00a0 States seek to increase power\u2014both tangible and intangible.\u00a0 In this scenario, states amass power at the cost of a perceived enemy.\u00a0 When one state has power and another state does not, that constitutes a legitimate threat. \u00a0Realism allocates human characteristics like selfishness, greed, aggression, and insecurity to states.\u00a0 This is because the individuals who govern states have those behaviors, and therefore, cannot be trusted.\u00a0 While realists insist that war is more likely to prevail than peace, long-term durable peace is difficult to ascertain.\u00a0 Two things are important for peace to be obtained.\u00a0 First, there must be a balance of power (U.S. and USSR during the Cold War), and second, is the cost-benefit of war.\u00a0 Balance of power is executed when two or more states have near identical power in terms of capacity, capability, and resources.\u00a0 Cost-benefit analysis of wars occurs when states either go to war because they predict that they can win, or, they do not engage in conflict because victory is uncertain.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Realism Authors<\/strong>: Thucydides, Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Carl von Clausewitz, Hans Morgenthau, George Kennan, E. H. Carr, Henry Kissinger<\/p>\n<p><strong>Neorealism Authors:<\/strong> Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Kenneth Waltz<\/p>\n<p><strong>Liberalism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Liberalism is another state level theory centered on cooperation, international law, international trade, international institutions, and human security.\u00a0 While liberalism recognizes and thrives on cooperation and diplomacy, it also sees the benefits of competition. \u00a0Contrary to realism, liberalism acknowledges that individuals have a desire to improve the state of the human condition and to promote a just society.\u00a0 It also acknowledges that individuals are rational beings and believes that laws are needed to promote cooperation.\u00a0 Shared values offer alternatives to conflict, including war.\u00a0 Within liberalism, democratic peace theory argues that because of shared values, culture, and norms, liberal democracies are less likely to go to war with other democracies.\u00a0 However, this does not stop liberal democracies from going to war with states that have opposing ideologies.\u00a0 With liberalism as a theoretical approach, international law is enforceable.\u00a0 Also, this theory promotes social justice issues like human rights, ecological issues, and cultural exchanges.\u00a0 The existence of U.S. and USSR cooperation over arms control since the 1980s demonstrates how diplomacy works even when military concerns and power are at stake.\u00a0 As a theory, liberalism supports the use of international conventions, like the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946), the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (1963), or the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).\u00a0 Under the umbrella of liberalism, international institutions are used to mediate conflicts\u2014like the World Trade Organization mediates trade and the United Nations (UN) promotes preventive diplomacy.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/oll-resources.s3.amazonaws.com\/titles\/278\/0175_Bk.pdf\">Full Text: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation by Jeremy Bentham<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Today, the international community has embraced non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as allies for the creation of cooperation and human security.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Liberalism Authors<\/strong>: John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, Adam Smith, Joseph Schumpeter<\/p>\n<p><strong>Democratic Peace Theory:<\/strong> Bruce Russett<\/p>\n<p><strong>Constructivism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This theory adds state behavior to the context of the state\u2019s characteristics, because each state has its own uniqueness: values, history, institutions, political system, social landscape, economic system, and religious practices.\u00a0 These elements affect how the state acts in the international system, through its foreign policy.\u00a0 For example, the United Kingdom\u2019s (UK) exit from the European Union (EU), known as Brexit, demonstrates that as a unit the UK has a set of values and social landscape that are in contrast with continental Europe.\u00a0 Brexit is an example of clashing identities and interests.\u00a0 The concept of state interest is socially constructed based on the state\u2019s unique characteristics.\u00a0 States socialize other states and in turn they are socialized by international organizations, like the UN and the EU. \u00a0\u00a0The acceptance of international law by states and inclusion of international conventions, such as the Third Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1949), demonstrates how states are socialized by accepting ideas that otherwise they would have not adopted and how international organizations promote cooperation by adoption of international law.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Constructivism Authors<\/strong>: Alex Wendt, James Der Derian<\/p>\n<p><strong>Radical Theories<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Generally identified as Marxist in nature, these theories expand from Marx, to Lenin, and to neo-Marxist theorists, like dependency theorist Cardoso.\u00a0 Traditionally, Marxism focuses on class (state and society), while Marxism-Leninism (and Neo-Marxism) turns its focus from the state to the international system.\u00a0 The Marxist idea of class struggle over the ownership of the means of production (e.g. coal mines and factories), and the struggle between the proletariat (the laborers) and the bourgeoisie (the owners), transfers to the international system by studying countries.\u00a0 This antagonism grows domestically until the working class, the proletariat, gains consciousness of its needy position and through a revolution, takes over the government and regains control of the means of production, thus promoting domestic equity by the distribution of goods and services.\u00a0 The proletariat initiates an international moment of revolutions. \u00a0This process will bring international consciousness to the following issues: 1) labor conditions of individual workers; 2) bourgeoisie acquisition of resources; 3) inequity in the distribution of goods; and 4) the disadvantage of trade relations in colonial times and post-colonial relationships among states (e.g. Marx demonstrates the disadvantaged position of India, relative to England).<\/p>\n<p>Marxism-Leninism, and to a certain extent, neo-Marxism, offer distinct insight into international relations by exploring state relations through dependency theory (Cardoso), banking (Luxemburg), and system theory (Wallerstein). \u00a0The prevalence of corporations, multinational corporations (MNCs), and transnational corporations (TNCs) dominating trade relations, services, and banking between rich and poor countries demonstrate the inequities in the international system.\u00a0 MNCs take advantage of the international system by exploiting poor countries\u2019 labor and natural resources because these countries lack the political and economic capacity to assert and to protect their disadvantaged position, particularly in trade.<\/p>\n<p>Marxism-Leninism looks at the international system as anarchic.\u00a0 The anarchic nature of the international system allows for states to create hierarchic economic and political relations among themselves in part due to economic domestic conditions.\u00a0 In this instance, the state has shifted its interests from manufacturing to finance capital and banking.\u00a0 Finance capital is internationalized, and in Lenin\u2019s terms this equals imperialism.\u00a0 The Vanguard Party envisioned by Lenin would lead the proletariat through liberation.\u00a0 In disagreement with Lenin, Luxemburg suggested that domestically this liberation is more organic and not dependent on the hierarchy of a party.\u00a0 Dependency theorists like Cardoso argued that it was in the interest of the core states (1st world) to maintain the status quo.\u00a0 The periphery states (3rd world) were at a disadvantage and were dependent on the prices of raw materials and labor markets to be able to satisfy the core states\u2019 production needs.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Radical Authors<\/strong>:\u00a0 Karl Marx, Nikolai Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, Mao Zedong, John A. Hobson, Immanuel Wallerstein, Fernando Cardoso<\/p>\n<p><strong>Feminism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Feminism focuses on the absence of women\u2019s voices in international relations.\u00a0 Feminist theory provides for women\u2019s voices that are absent from theorizing, decision-making, or even from daily activities typically performed by women.\u00a0 Gender as a category of analysis is also included.\u00a0 Feminism sheds light on the absence of women\u2019s perspectives in decision-making.\u00a0 Equally important is women\u2019s inclusion in areas of war and peace.\u00a0 For example, the systematic rape of women in 1992-1995 during the Bosnian War finally went to the International Criminal Court (ICC), where women were able to present their cases of rape and torture.\u00a0 The result was that rape is now a war crime and a crime against humanity.\u00a0 The Nuremberg trials and the Tokyo trials, post- World War II, in contrast, side stepped women.\u00a0 In the case of Japan, Korean women who endured sexual assault and servitude during World War II were labeled as \u2018comfort women for Japanese soldiers.\u2019\u00a0 Due to the courageous voices of Bosnian women, the work of international judges, prosecutors, and investigators, the sexual assault perpetrated on women and girls during the Bosnian conflict now constitutes a war crime.\u00a0 This new jurisprudence has established a safe place for women\u2019s voices to heard and protected.\u00a0 Now there is a process for accountability.\u00a0 The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993-2017) was created to prosecute and bring accountability for acts performed during war times in Bosnia, including acts performed specifically against women and children.\u00a0 Human rights have now been extended to all those who suffered rape, sexual torture, and other forms of persecution during war.\u00a0 In this context, rape and all other sexual actions perpetrated against women and children, and in some cases against male civilians, are punished and some level of justice is realized.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.icty.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.icty.org\/en\/about\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">About the ICTY<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Feminism Authors<\/strong>: Cynthia Enloe, J. Ann Tickner<\/p>\n<p>Theories are important for the study of international relations, yet they need further contextualization by integrating them with levels of analysis.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Levels of Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_51\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-51\" style=\"width: 189px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-51\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis-300x238.jpg\" alt=\"Levels of Analysis\" width=\"189\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis-300x238.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis-65x52.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis-225x179.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis-350x278.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2021\/10\/Levels-of-Analysis.jpg 424w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 189px) 100vw, 189px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-51\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3.5 Levels of Analysis<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In international relations, levels of analysis allow for a better understanding of states\u2019 behaviors in various complex scenarios.\u00a0 Levels of analysis help international relations scholars better understand and analyze how decisions are made and the effects of perceptions in state relations.\u00a0 International relations scholars recognize three levels of analysis: Individual, State, and System.\u00a0 Each level has its own characteristics and impacts.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Individual Level of Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This level of analysis focuses on individuals and their contributions.\u00a0 Individual level of analysis uses domestic political atmosphere as a barometer for what actions might be expected from that state.\u00a0 Domestic conditions affect how leaders and decision-makers participate in foreign policy.\u00a0 A leader\u2019s perception of a situation may promote peace or conflict.\u00a0 An example would be how President Trump perceives trade relations with China.\u00a0 The result has been a trade war that has affected many areas of the U.S. economy.\u00a0 A leader\u2019s personality is equally important.\u00a0 Gandhi was able to return India\u2019s to independence in 1947 in part because of his actions and persona.\u00a0 He was charismatic and respectfully defiant of British rule of the Indo-subcontinent.<\/p>\n<p>Some important variables to consider for the individual level of analysis include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Decision-making<\/li>\n<li>Awareness of domestic public opinion and support<\/li>\n<li>Personality (or lack thereof)<\/li>\n<li>Perception<\/li>\n<li>Actions and choices<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Individuals with different levels of resources, access, and power have different perspectives about their state\u2019s survival in the international system.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Actors or participants<\/strong>: politicians, policy makers, academics, popular leaders, grass-root leaders<\/p>\n<p><strong>Examples<\/strong>: Ronald Reagan, Mikael Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, Noam Chomsky, Gandhi, and Greta Thunberg.<\/p>\n<p><strong>State Level of Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Domestic politics shapes how states perform internationally.\u00a0 Is the government a democracy or an authoritarian regime or a transitioning democracy?\u00a0 These are important issues to consider as different regimes have different expectations that can either support international negotiations or hinder them.\u00a0 Besides the type of regime, economic systems are also important to consider how states participate.\u00a0 The type of economic system\u2014whether capitalist, socialist, communist, or hybrid constrains how states negotiate in trade, accept foreign direct investment (FDI), economic development, and equitable access to goods and services.\u00a0 The ability of a state to see how it can benefit from a situation potentially promotes or hinders an international negotiation.\u00a0 For example, the current negotiations between the U.S and North Korea can be perceived as a hindrance to North Korea, because nuclear weapons are a bargaining chip for its regional power.\u00a0 The level of domestic participation in areas of legitimate government, political transparency, free and open elections, free press, and the opportunity for individuals in civil society can be predictive elements of state behavior in the international system.<\/p>\n<p>States have tangible and intangible variables that scholars have used to measure and predict a state\u2019s actions.\u00a0 The following are examples of each:<\/p>\n<p><strong>Tangible Variables<\/strong>: population and demographics, military capability, natural resources or lack thereof, geography, geopolitical borders, and history<\/p>\n<p><strong>Intangible Variables<\/strong>: culture, norms, values (e.g. human rights, promotion of equality and opportunity, and civil liberties).<\/p>\n<p>These variables can be useful in placing countries in the international system.\u00a0 It is also a means used to rank countries, for example, the index of \u2026 [provide example or examples].<\/p>\n<p><strong>International Level of Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In general, international relations scholars accept that the international system is anarchic, because there is not an overarching institution that is above the states that offers deterrence and punitive enforcement for non-compliance.\u00a0 International interaction among states is multifaceted: regional, bilateral, international governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), MNCs, etc.\u00a0 Power is an important issue because of the anarchic nature of the international system.\u00a0 Distribution of power is limited, because of the inequality among states.\u00a0 In the international system, displays of power are identifiable.\u00a0 For example, hard power consists of coercive power, threats, and the use of negative incentives.\u00a0 Many times, states use military power as a form of coercive action.<\/p>\n<p>John Mearsheimer and power; the following video describes power:<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"John Mearsheimer\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/o5oOtI_ehOE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=o5oOtI_ehOE\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Or click here to watch the video!<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Soft power is an example of power exercised by states like persuasion.\u00a0 States measure their power in a context.\u00a0 Soft power can be exemplified on how states use their position in the international system.\u00a0 For example, exchange students, study abroad programs, and international students, are all a means of cultural and educational exchanges that promote soft power.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph Nye and power; the following video describes soft power:<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Joseph S. Nye, Jr.: What Is Power?\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/ehgHglSw1Io?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ehgHglSw1Io\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Or click here to watch the video!<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Power itself is not contested; what is a point of argumentation, however, is how power is measured, how it is executed, and how successful or not it is.\u00a0 It is therefore critical to study other actors and elements of the international system, like international law, international institutions, non-governmental organizations, to name a few.<\/p>\n<p><strong>International Law<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>International law helps define responsibilities of states and their behavior with each other.\u00a0 International law is not without its critics.\u00a0 International law was not able to stop either World War I or World War II.\u00a0 It is difficult to hold countries accountable and it lacks enforcement\u2014as in the case of the 2003 invasion of Iraq forged by the U.S. and the coalition.\u00a0 Declarations, such as the Human Rights Declaration of 1948, are difficult to enforce or to provide for punitive action.\u00a0 This is because they are not law, and are therefore, not enforceable.\u00a0 Declarations are agreements based on values and accepted norms of behavior that reflect common ethical goals.<\/p>\n<p>Violations of treaties and violations of accepted and codified law, are enforceable via sanctions and other punitive actions deemed necessary by members of the international community.\u00a0 International law provides for a framework as in the case of Antarctica with treaties and protocols <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ats.aq\/index_e.html\">Article: Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only<\/a>.\u00a0 It also stipulates procedure like in the case of Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 (NPT) <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/disarmament\/wmd\/nuclear\/npt\/\">Click here to read the treaty<\/a>. \u00a0For the most part, international law like the examples mentioned above, and treaties are categorized as customary law.\u00a0 Sub-areas of customary law are: humanitarian and peace law, law of war, law of diplomacy, and responsibility to protect (R2P).\u00a0 When it comes to issues covered by international law, they are diverse.\u00a0 A few of the many examples that could be listed are shown below.<\/p>\n<table class=\"grid landscape aligncenter\" style=\"height: 268px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"shaded\" style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px; text-align: center;\"><strong>Topic<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px; text-align: center;\"><strong>Law Information (websites)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Refugees<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/refugee-law\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/refugee-law\/<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Refugees<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unhcr.org\/publications\/legal\/3d4aba564\/refugee-protection-guide-international-refugee-law-handbook-parliamentarians.html\">https:\/\/www.unhcr.org\/publications\/legal\/3d4aba564\/refugee-protection-guide-international-refugee-law-handbook-parliamentarians.html<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Environment and Climate Change<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/land-property-environment\/environmental-law\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/land-property-environment\/environmental-law\/<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Environment and Climate Change<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.asil.org\/sites\/default\/files\/ERG_ENVIROMENT.pdf\">https:\/\/www.asil.org\/sites\/default\/files\/ERG_ENVIROMENT.pdf<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Prisoners of War<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hg.org\/prisoners-of-war.html\">https:\/\/www.hg.org\/prisoners-of-war.html<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Genocide<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/genocideprevention\/documents\/atrocity-crimes\/Doc.32_GC-III-EN.pdf\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/genocideprevention\/documents\/atrocity-crimes\/Doc.32_GC-III-EN.pdf<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 218.547px;\">Human Rights<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/sections\/universal-declaration\/foundation-international-human-rights-law\/index.html\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/sections\/universal-declaration\/foundation-international-human-rights-law\/index.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Space<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/oosa\/en\/ourwork\/spacelaw\/treaties.html\">https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/oosa\/en\/ourwork\/spacelaw\/treaties.html<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Water<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.internationalwaterlaw.org\/blog\/category\/international-water-law\/\">https:\/\/www.internationalwaterlaw.org\/blog\/category\/international-water-law\/<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Water<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000185080\">https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000185080<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 218.547px;\">Human Trafficking<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/transnational-threats\/trafficking-in-persons\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/transnational-threats\/trafficking-in-persons\/<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 218.547px;\">Human Trafficking<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 16px; width: 912.016px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/unodc\/en\/human-trafficking\/what-is-human-trafficking.html?ref=menuside\">https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/unodc\/en\/human-trafficking\/what-is-human-trafficking.html?ref=menuside<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The diversity of issues that have provisions and protections under international law demonstrate the willingness of the international community to manage and work with reciprocity and in \u2018good faith\u2019 to establish a common set of values.\u00a0 While self-interest continues to be key to how and to why a state chooses to follow international law and norm, the current system benefits cooperation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The post-World War II world gained a slew of organizations designed to provide ample cooperation among states in an increasingly diverse international system.\u00a0 International organizations provide for arbitration in some cases and in other cases it offers expectations and predictability.\u00a0 International organizations like the United Nations (UN) Security Council vote on resolutions such as war.\u00a0 The UN was formed in 1945 at the end of World War II.\u00a0 The failure of the League of Nations after World War I and the subsequent World War II, twenty years later, provided for a strong argument to support the UN in 1945.\u00a0 The United Nations offers a chance for states to understand power, and for people to understand their right to self-government and sovereignty.\u00a0 The UN was created with six bodies: The General Assembly with 193 members (today\u2019s number), the Security Council (five permanent members\u2014United Kingdom, United States, Russia, China, France, and ten rotating non-permanent members voted in by the General Assembly), Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), The Trusteeship Council, The Secretariat, and International Court of Justice (ICJ)\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/sections\/about-un\/main-organs\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">United Nations: Main Bodies<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>After World War II, six countries in Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).\u00a0 This organization became essential for European economic stability post World War II by providing countries in Europe with more reason to cooperate than to defect.\u00a0 The European Economic Community (EEC) emerged, and by the 1980s the enlargement of the EEC proved that law making is stronger at the European Union (EU) than at the UN \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/europa.eu\/european-union\/about-eu\/history_en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Article: The History of the European Union<\/a>. \u00a0\u00a0Today, the EU is a power to counterbalance states like the United States and Russia.\u00a0 The EU has 27 member-states.\u00a0 The institutional bodies key to the function of a well-established economic, political, and social union are the following: the European Parliament, European Council, Council of the European Union, European Commission, Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), European Central Bank (ECB), European Court of Auditors, European External Action Service, European Economic and Social Committee, European Committee of the Regions, European Investment Bank, European Ombudsman, European Data Protection Supervisor, European Data Protection Board, and Interinstitutional Bodies <a href=\"https:\/\/europa.eu\/european-union\/about-eu\/institutions-bodies_en\">EU Institutions and Bodies<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The UN has global reach along with International Monetary Fund,[12] World Bank,[13] The World Trade Organization,[14] and Interpol.[15]\u00a0 These organizations promote human security, policing action, military action (UN\u2019s blue helmets), economic stability, and economic assistance.\u00a0 Their role is to facilitate interaction and exchanges among states and among peoples.\u00a0 Yet the increase of regional organizations offers an alternative to the concept of hegemony.\u00a0 The global presence of regional international governmental organizations (IGOs) like ASEAN,[16] AU,[17] the IAEA,[18] MERCOSUR, provide evidence of how regionalism have a legitimate place in the international system.\u00a0 Fluidity of relations appears to provide challenges that make for cooperation in a globalized world more likely to succeed.\u00a0 Regional and global cooperation provide an alternative to zero sum game.\u00a0\u00a0 It is harder today for China to claim regional moral high ground when President Xi Jinping promotes domestic policies like \u201creeducation\u201d of the Uyghur population in detention camps <a href=\"https:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/china-uighurs-leaked-govt-cables-cant-deny-2019-11\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Article: Devastating leaks have deprived China of its main strategy to deflect mounting evidence of its mass oppression of Uighur Muslims<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The African Union\u2019s work on COVID-19 provide for an example of regional collaboration when the declaration of April 16, 2020 states that: \u201cKeeping the national borders open for food and agriculture commodity trade so as not to disrupt regional and interregional trade in food and agriculture products and inputs.\u201d[19] Regional organizations are making attempts to manage this pandemic and developing strategies for regional and global inter-state cooperation as the African Union\u2019s work demonstrates.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Since the 1990s there has been an explosion of NGOs with international interests motivated to act based on a variety of transnational issues.\u00a0 NGOs work to advocate, to lobby, to operationalize action and to engage in protest.\u00a0 Generally, NGOS are international actors that focus on one issue and to advance a cause.\u00a0 Some NGOs provide for goods and services to those in need, others do research, others provide for expertise, etc. The participation of NGOs in the international system transforms the landscape by working on issues that demand broad cooperation by multiple actors.\u00a0 This is particularly true when issues like malaria happen.\u00a0 Malaria affects disproportionately poor countries.\u00a0 Less-developed countries (LDCs) going through a malaria crisis have depended on NGOs like The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.\u00a0 NGOs like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation work to provide life-saving aid to populations in less developed states.\u00a0 In the process, partnership among international actors is necessary: \u201cwe can save millions more lives by addressing the high-burden countries, in partnership with affected countries, donors and technical partners. [\u2026]\u00a0 We also advocate for sustained and increased funding of malaria-related efforts by donor government and affected countries.\u201d[20]\u00a0\u00a0 This NGO provides for accountability in global governance as well as global partnerships.\u00a0 Human Rights Watch, not surprisingly, promotes human rights.\u00a0 One strategy it and other NGOs use is to embarrass states, and states can be sensitive to this strategy.\u00a0 Human Rights Watch provided low-level shaming in an article written by Maria Laura Canineu titled: \u201cBrazil Needs More Pesticide Regulation, Not Less.\u201d\u00a0 Canineu writes that:<\/p>\n<p>Another pesticide found in samples of lettuce is atrazine, which the European Union banned in 2003 because it interferes with reproduction and human development, and may cause cancer.\u00a0 It\u2019s legal in Brazil, though. [\u2026] One of the rights celebrated that say is the right to food, which includes the right to food safety.\u00a0 Another is the right to health, which depends on a decent, well-regulated food supply.\u00a0 Ensuring both these rights requires ensuring safe levels of toxins, bacteria, and other substances that can make food injurious to health.[21]<\/p>\n<p>By pointing out the issues with food security and framing them as a human right, Human Rights Watch is putting Brazil, the state, on alert regarding the issue of food safety and food as human right.\u00a0 In this case, the NGO points out how the state fails to protect the nation (its population).<\/p>\n<p>To provide a perspective of international activities, the following is a table that contains a few NGOs, some widely known IGOs, and some international conferences.<\/p>\n<table class=\"grid landscape aligncenter\">\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"shaded\">\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>IGOs<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>NGOs<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Conferences<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>UN\u2014United Nations<\/td>\n<td>Doctors Without Borders<\/td>\n<td>UN Women\u2019s Conferences 1975, 1980, 1985, 1995<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>EU\u2014European Union<\/td>\n<td>Reporters Without Borders<\/td>\n<td>UN Environment and Development 1992<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>ASEAN\u2014Association of Southeast Asian Nations<\/td>\n<td>Human Rights Watch<\/td>\n<td>UN Human Rights 1968, 1993<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>IAEA\u2014International Atomic Energy Agency<\/td>\n<td>International Rescue Committee<\/td>\n<td>UN Human Environment 1972<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>AU\u2014African Union<\/td>\n<td>Afghan Women\u2019s Network<\/td>\n<td>UN Climate Change Summit 2019<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>MERCOSUR\u2014South American Regional Economic Organization<\/td>\n<td>Greenpeace<\/td>\n<td>Doha Conference (2001, 2008, 2012)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>League of Arab States<\/td>\n<td>Caritas<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Global Forum on Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The challenges in international relations regarding transnational issues require complex solutions and consistent state cooperation.\u00a0 Some solutions have been beneficial to many, such as the UN Millennium Development Goals.[22]\u00a0 States acting in their own interest, face challenges when human security and state security clash.\u00a0 Transnational issues demonstrate that clash and the challenges produced.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Transnational Issues: The Challenges<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Interconnection among individuals has been growing due to people\u2019s movement as well as broader access of technologies used for communicating.\u00a0 Transnational issues vary in time and space.\u00a0 Transnational problems are unpredictable.\u00a0 This promotes instability and uncertainty among states.\u00a0 Reactive actions have become the norm.\u00a0 For example, pandemics like COVID-19 demonstrate how difficult it is for states to prepare and how imperative it is for states to cooperate.\u00a0 Ultimately, some states have a reactive approach to problem solving, like the U.S.\u00a0 Another set of states such as Greece or Iceland has a proactive approach to the pandemic and the results of their actions when shared can benefit other states.\u00a0 The lack of global cooperation during COVID-19 has produced competition and hoarding of supplies.\u00a0 For example, in the United States, some of the states are competing in the global market for COVID-19 tests and PPE (protective personal equipment), like medical gowns and masks.\u00a0 This is in part because the U.S. was not prepared.\u00a0 South Korea, in contrast, has been proactive in sharing its resources, like COVID-19 tests.\u00a0 The World Health Organization (WHO) understands that epidemics and pandemics do not recognize geopolitics borders.\u00a0 WHO collects data, provides for predictive measures, and provides for expertise.\u00a0 If states are willing to collaborate, WHO can be a source of information for states to effectively manage global pandemics. \u00a0Cooperation and disagreements are typical of transnational reactions among states. \u00a0\u00a0The following transnational issues, microcredit, cyber warfare, climate migrants, and water will be addressed next.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Microcredit <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Microcredit has its proponents and its opponents.\u00a0 When Muhammad Yunus started to give small loans to Bangladeshi women, he did not predict how his efforts were creating a movement that would help many and would eventually lead to the creation of Grameen Bank.\u00a0 From the creation of Grameen bank to today, there are growing number of microcredit NGOs that provide help\u2014 mostly to women, children, and the poor in general.\u00a0 Criticism of microcredit is based on how it has not lifted people out of poverty.\u00a0 Microcredit also has its challenges with some organizations promoting cash transfers.\u00a0 Microcredit emphasizes return on capital investment and re-investment in the community, while cash transfers do not have an incentive to promote community partnerships.\u00a0 In theory, microcredit does the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>finances loans of a few hundred dollars<\/li>\n<li>promotes self-employment, and entrepreneurial skills<\/li>\n<li>allows for educational opportunities<\/li>\n<li>helps with housing<\/li>\n<li>provides for examples in the community<\/li>\n<li>leverages neighbor to neighbor micro-financing<\/li>\n<li>develops strategies for community engagement<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><strong>Student Activity<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<p>Compare and contrast two microcredit NGOs like Kiva <a href=\"https:\/\/www.kiva.org\">https:\/\/www.kiva.org<\/a> and Grameen Bank <a href=\"http:\/\/www.grameen.com\">http:\/\/www.grameen.com<\/a> .\u00a0 Answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>How do the two NGOs improve livelihoods?<\/li>\n<li>Compare information posted on the websites about the organizations\u2019 board of directors, projects, funding, process for creating loans, where they operate, who has received loans, percentage of both loans in repayment and default, etc.<\/li>\n<li>How does microcredit improve economic growth?<\/li>\n<li>What is the impact of the loans on communities?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Read the articles.<\/li>\n<li>Analyze the information.<\/li>\n<li>Compare the information from the articles.<\/li>\n<li>Identify and analyze the pros and cons of microcredit.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/future-perfect\/2019\/1\/15\/18182167\/microcredit-microfinance-poverty-grameen-bank-yunus\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Article 1: Microcredit was a hugely hyped solution to global poverty. What happened?<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdfplus\/10.1257\/app.20140287\">Article 2:\u00a0 Six Randomized Evaluations of Microcredit: Introduction and Further Steps<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Cyber Warfare <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Cyber warfare takes place between nation-states.\u00a0 These are strategic attacks to deliberately cause damage to the [capacity of action] [don\u2019t know what this means] and capability of the state to retaliate.\u00a0 The attacks are pre-determined and are politically motivated.\u00a0 This is not equivalent to a poor man\u2019s war.\u00a0 Cyber warfare often includes attacks on government computers and networks as well as MNCs.\u00a0 Government computer and internet systems are susceptible to various types of cyberattacks like malware, phishing, botnets, and distributed denial of service, among other more sophisticated forms of cyberattack and vandalism activities.<\/p>\n<p>Europol has a useful website with information regarding the types of cyber crimes: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.europol.europa.eu\/crime-areas-and-trends\/crime-areas\/cybercrime\">Europol: Cybercrime<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Nation-states engage in a variety of high level cybercrimes like ransomware and spyware.\u00a0 The types of assets that are vulnerable in this environment is not much different than with a conventional weapons attack: energy producing facilities, civilian populations, missile systems, key government systems, and some critical structures.\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0In many cases, the success of a mission depends on an inside person, a hacker or even a spy.\u00a0 The attack is often as simple as logging in to a specified computer, installing a USB, and opening a file attachment.\u00a0 Another problem with cyberattacks is that the attack is difficult to trace, especially in a short period of time. \u00a0\u00a0The Darknet offers hackers and cyber warfare participants a \u201csafe\u201d space to congregate.\u00a0 Forensic work aimed at catching cyber criminals is possible, but it is time consuming.\u00a0 At times, hackers leave a \u201cfingerprint\u201d albeit it can be difficult to identify.\u00a0 Cyber warfare provides for speculation and uncertainty.\u00a0 What we know is that of the attacks are nation-state to nation-state, while others involve the use of private groups in collaboration with nation-states to operationalize the cyberattack.\u00a0 Such attacks are designed to penetrate and to disable the perceived enemy.\u00a0 Another aspect of cyber warfare is how it produces a distraction while for a country that is also preparing to attack in more conventional ways.<\/p>\n<p>Examples of cyber warfare, cyber-attacks, and other cybercriminal activity are found in the Center for Strategic and International Studies website. \u00a0Following are additional articles on the topic:<\/p>\n<table class=\"grid landscape aligncenter\" style=\"width: 1302px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"shaded\" style=\"height: 16px;\">\n<td style=\"text-align: center; height: 16px; width: 867.172px;\"><strong>Articles<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; height: 16px; width: 406.453px;\"><strong>Organizations<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 62px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 867.172px;\">The Register, \u201cKremlin hacking crew went on a &#8216;Roman Holiday&#8217; \u2013 researchers\u201d<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2018\/07\/16\/apt28_italian_job\/\">https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2018\/07\/16\/apt28_italian_job\/<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 406.453px;\">Center for Strategic and International Studies<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.csis.org\/programs\/technology-policy-program\/significant-cyber-incidents\">https:\/\/www.csis.org\/programs\/technology-policy-program\/significant-cyber-incidents<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 867.172px;\">The Guardian, \u201cRussia accused of series of international cyber-attacks<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/may\/13\/russia-accused-international-cyber-attacks-apt-28-sofacy-sandworm\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/may\/13\/russia-accused-international-cyber-attacks-apt-28-sofacy-sandworm<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 406.453px;\">The Rand Corporation<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/topics\/cyber-warfare.html\">https:\/\/www.rand.org\/topics\/cyber-warfare.html<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 46px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 867.172px;\">The Hill, \u201cNorth Korea\u2019s Nuclear Thread is Nothing Compared to Its Cyberwarfare\u201d<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/thehill.com\/opinion\/cybersecurity\/390601-north-koreas-nuclear-threat-is-nothing-compared-to-its-cyber-warfare\">https:\/\/thehill.com\/opinion\/cybersecurity\/390601-north-koreas-nuclear-threat-is-nothing-compared-to-its-cyber-warfare<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 46px; width: 406.453px;\">Interpol<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/Crimes\/Cybercrime\">https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/Crimes\/Cybercrime<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 93px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 93px; width: 867.172px;\">Forbes, \u201cCyberwarfare Will Explode In 2020 (Because It\u2019s Cheap, Easy And Effective)\u201d<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/steveandriole\/2020\/01\/14\/cyberwarfare-will-explode-in-2020-because-its-cheap-easy--effective\/#3f39b9596781\">https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/steveandriole\/2020\/01\/14\/cyberwarfare-will-explode-in-2020-because-its-cheap-easy&#8211;effective\/#3f39b9596781<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 93px; width: 406.453px;\">NATO Cooperative Cyber Defense Centre of Excellence<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/ccdcoe.org\">https:\/\/ccdcoe.org<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 62px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 867.172px;\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 62px; width: 406.453px;\">Europol<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.europol.europa.eu\/about-europol\/european-cybercrime-centre-ec3\">https:\/\/www.europol.europa.eu\/about-europol\/european-cybercrime-centre-ec3<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Cyber warfare is the new Cold War.\u00a0 Hackers tend to fall into three categories: 1) government sponsored; 2) independent hackers, and 3) governmental agencies.\u00a0 Motives are not too different from those of the Cold War: power, competition, and self-interest.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Study the Cold War strategies.\u00a0 Study the current strategies of cyber war.\u00a0 Then compare and contrast them.\u00a0 Consider the following questions: Who gains?\u00a0 Who loses?\u00a0 What are the issues at stake?\u00a0 How is power being used?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Climate Migrants <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Climate or environmental migrants are increasing as a result of climate change.\u00a0 Sweden was one of the first countries to construct \u201ca special category as a \u2018person in need of protection\u2019 who is unable to return to his native country because of an environmental disaster.\u201d[23]\u00a0 Climate migrants are a newer development in international politics.\u00a0 The Migration, Environment and Climate Change (MECC) Division of the UN Migration Agency (IOM) prefers the term climate migrants to climate refugees.\u00a0 The argument made to call these individuals migrants is based on maintaining the integrity of the 1951 Refugee Convention.\u00a0 Another element is how the term \u2018refugee\u2019 fails to address the specific challenges faced by persons who migrate due to climate.\u00a0 \u201cIn 2018 alone, 17.2 million new displacements associated with disasters in 148 countries and territories were recorder (IDMC) and 764,000 people in Somalia, Afghanistan and several other countries were displaced following drought (IOM).\u201d[24]\u00a0 Managing these crises require empathy alongside responsibility and sound global policies.\u00a0 These global policies are environmental, ecological, and climatic in nature.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Student Activity<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>What is the correlation between climate change related events and the increased number of climate migrants?\u00a0 What regions are most affected and why?\u00a0 What are the specific issues that motivate individuals to become climate migrants?\u00a0 Are these individuals refugees or migrants?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Water issues<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Based on the Water Convention (adopted in 1992, in full force by 1996, and in 2016 all UN members accede), water issues are complex, require collaboration, demand transparency, promote the exchange of ideas and practices, and require good behavior. \u00a0Transboundary watercourses involve the maintenance of waterway obligations, both downstream and upstream, as well as international lakes and aquifers.\u00a0 By no means is this an exhaustive list of issues that involve water; however, these are useful and should be considered as examples:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Equity in water distribution<\/li>\n<li>Environmental protections and environmental assessments<\/li>\n<li>Sustainable development<\/li>\n<li>Sustainable agriculture<\/li>\n<li>Urban growth<\/li>\n<li>Human health and safety<\/li>\n<li>Pollution<\/li>\n<li>Ecology<\/li>\n<li>Alert systems<\/li>\n<li>Technological integration<\/li>\n<li>Food<\/li>\n<li>Clean, safe, and potable water<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The collaborative efforts in countries from Africa, to Europe, and to Central Asia demonstrate that exchange of good practices, respect for obligations, and adoption of soft international law and protocols is not only possible, but is actionable.\u00a0 It is necessary to create and protect good practices to save international transboundary water systems.\u00a0 \u201cTransboundary water cooperation has the potential to generate many significant benefits for cooperating countries, such as accelerated economic growth, improved well-being, enhanced environmental sustainability and increased political stability.\u201d[25]<\/p>\n<p>Transnational issues reveal how important international relations is today.\u00a0 The complexity of the issues and the goals of international actors allow international scholars to study events in a multilayered approach.\u00a0 Transnational topics offer insight on human actions and their implications in a globalized world.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h3 class=\"textbox__title\">Conclusion<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Generally speaking, international relations scholars and students produce more questions than answers.\u00a0 Realism, liberalism, constructivism, radical theories, and feminism are theories that explain and analyze how the international system functions. \u00a0The international community is not only difficult to define and analyze, it is also intrinsically oriented to live on with a lack of consensus.\u00a0 History demonstrates how resilient humans are.\u00a0 States work on survival of their interests and on maintaining power.\u00a0 Levels of analysis allow scholars various angles and explanations for understanding international events.\u00a0 International organizations have a history of promoting peace, mediation, and accommodation.\u00a0 Human struggles may be different in the 21st century as compared to previous history, but humans are no strangers to the concept of struggle and survival.\u00a0 Lessons from multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar international systems provide international relations scholars with models and predictability.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h4 class=\"textbox__title\">Further Resources<\/h4>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>International Water Resources Association: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.iwra.org\">https:\/\/www.iwra.org<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.unwater.org\/water-facts\/transboundary-waters\/\">https:\/\/www.unwater.org\/water-facts\/transboundary-waters\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Japan<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/past\/docs\/issues\/89apr\/defend.htm\">https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/past\/docs\/issues\/89apr\/defend.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/japan-governor-wants-us-stop-new-marines-base-reduce-presence-1195826\">https:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/japan-governor-wants-us-stop-new-marines-base-reduce-presence-1195826<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/timeline.com\/japanese-people-want-the-us-military-out-and-theyve-rioted-over-it-in-the-past-2433eb9e02d1\">https:\/\/timeline.com\/japanese-people-want-the-us-military-out-and-theyve-rioted-over-it-in-the-past-2433eb9e02d1<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/foreignpolicy.com\/2019\/09\/04\/american-bases-in-japan-are-sitting-ducks\/\">https:\/\/foreignpolicy.com\/2019\/09\/04\/american-bases-in-japan-are-sitting-ducks\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Turkey<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2016\/jul\/16\/isis-airstrike-turkey-airspace-us-air-force\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2016\/jul\/16\/isis-airstrike-turkey-airspace-us-air-force<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2003\/WORLD\/europe\/03\/20\/sprj.irq.turkey.vote\/index.html\">https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2003\/WORLD\/europe\/03\/20\/sprj.irq.turkey.vote\/index.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/news\/turkey-gives-airspace-use-ok\/\">https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/news\/turkey-gives-airspace-use-ok\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/jmd\/international-courts\">https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/jmd\/international-courts<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/international-hybrid-criminal-courts-tribunals\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/international-hybrid-criminal-courts-tribunals\/<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Notes<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/p>\n<div>\n<p>[1] Carl von Clausewitz,\u00a0<em>On War,<\/em> Translated by J. J. Graham, Chatham: Kent Wordsworth Editions, 1997 [1827], 333, 335,<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[2] Correlates of War, \u201cAbout the Correlates of War Project,\u201d Correlates of War, accessed September 27, 2021, https:\/\/correlatesofwar.org\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[3] G.E.M. de Ste. Croix, <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>, \u00a0Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd.: London, 1972, 339.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[4] G.E.M. de Ste. Croix, <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>, 340.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[5] G. E. M. de St. Croix, <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>, 98.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[6] NATO is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization with a focus on Atlantic security of the U.S. and its allies in Europe. It is a mutual defense organization.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[7] WARSAW Pact was created to promote the security of USSR and its allies as a response to NATO\u2019s creation.\u00a0 It was a collective security organization.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[8] MERCOSUR, \u201cMercosur Official Website,\u201d MERCOSUR, 2021, https:\/\/www.mercosur.int\/en\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[9] David Vivas-Eugui, \u201cRegional and Bilateral Agreements and a TRIPS-plus World: the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA),\u201d Geneva: Quaker United Nations Office, 2003.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[10] Carranza, \u201cMERCOSUR, The Free Trade Area of The Americas and the Future of U.S. Hegemony in Latin America,\u201d <em>Fordham International Law Journal<\/em> 27, n. 3 (2003), 1063-64.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[11] Realism does not mean conservatism.\u00a0 Liberalism does not \u201cliberal\u201d in our current political context.\u00a0 These are not domestic attributes, concepts, or theories.\u00a0 In international relations, they have their own identity and they are independent theories from domestic interpretation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[12] International Monetary Fund, \u201cInternational Monetary Fund &#8211; Homepage,\u201d IMF, 2021, https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/home.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[13] The World Bank Group, \u201cWorld Bank Group &#8211; International Development, Poverty, &amp;amp; Sustainability,\u201d World Bank, 2021, https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/home.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[14] World Trade Organization, \u201cWorld Trade Organization &#8211; Global Trade,\u201d World Trade Organization &#8211; Home page &#8211; Global trade, 2021, https:\/\/www.wto.org\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[15] INTERPOL, \u201cThe International Criminal Police Organization,\u201d INTERPOL, 2021, https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[16] Mustika Larasati Hapsoro, \u201cASEAN Member States Adopt Regional Action Plan to Tackle Plastic Pollution,\u201d Association of Southeast Asian Nations, May 28, 2021, https:\/\/asean.org\/asean-member-states-adopt-regional-action-plan-to-tackle-plastic-pollution\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[17] \u201cHome,\u201d Home | African Union (The African Union Commission), accessed September 27, 2021, https:\/\/au.int\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[18] International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), \u201cOfficial Web Site of the IAEA,\u201d International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2021), https:\/\/www.iaea.org\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[19] African Union Commission, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. \u201cMeeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition during the COVID-19 Pandemic.\u201d Meeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition During the COVID-19 Pandemic | African Union. The African Union Commission, April 27, 2020. https:\/\/au.int\/en\/pressreleases\/20200427\/meeting-african-ministers-agriculture-declaration-food-security-and-nutrition, 6.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[20] Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. \u201cMalaria: Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation.\u201d Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/www.gatesfoundation.org\/our-work\/programs\/global-health\/malaria, Accessed 4\/29\/2020.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[21] Maria Laura Canineu, \u201cBrazil Needs More Pesticide Regulation, Not Less,\u201d Human Rights Watch, December 23, 2019, https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2019\/12\/23\/brazil-needs-more-pesticide-regulation-not-less#. Accessed 4\/29\/2020.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[22] United Nations. \u201cUnited Nations Millennium Development Goals.\u201d United Nations. United Nations. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/www.un.org\/millenniumgoals\/. Accessed 5\/12\/2020<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[23] Oli Brown, <em>Migration and Climate Change<\/em>, (Geneva: International Organization for Migration, Migration Series n. 31, 2008), 39.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[24] Ionesco, \u201cLet\u2019s Talk About Climate Migrants, Not Climate Refugees\u201d 06 June 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/.<\/a> Accessed 05\/05\/2020; IOM, \u201cIOM UN Migration,\u201d International Organization for Migration, 2021, https:\/\/www.iom.int\/.; IDMC, \u201cIDMC,\u201d IDMC, 2021, https:\/\/www.internal-displacement.org\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>[25] UNECE, \u201cConvention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes: The Water Convention: Responding to Global Water Challenges,\u201d 2018, 9.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">African Union Commission, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. \u201cMeeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition during the COVID-19 Pandemic.\u201d Meeting of African Ministers for Agriculture; Declaration on Food Security and Nutrition During the COVID-19 Pandemic | African Union. The African Union Commission, April 27, 2020. <a href=\"https:\/\/au.int\/en\/pressreleases\/20200427\/meeting-african-ministers-agriculture-declaration-food-security-and-nutrition\">https:\/\/au.int\/en\/pressreleases\/20200427\/meeting-african-ministers-agriculture-declaration-food-security-and-nutrition<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Banerjee, Abhijit, Dean Karlan and Jonathan Zinman. \u201cSix Randomized Evaluations of Micro Credit: Introduction and Further Steps.\u201d <em>American Economic Journal: Applied Economics<\/em> 7, n. 1 (2015): 1-21.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bentham, Jeremy. <em>An Introduction to the Principle of Morals and Legislation<\/em>. Oxford: Oxford At the Clarendon Press 1823 (1780, 1789).<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. \u201cMalaria: Bill &amp;amp; Melinda Gates Foundation.\u201d Bill &amp;amp; Melinda Gates Foundation. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/www.gatesfoundation.org\/our-work\/programs\/global-health\/malaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Brown, Oli. <em>Migration and Climate Change<\/em> (Geneva: International Organization for Migration, Migration Series n. 31, 2008). Accessed 05\/04\/2020<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Canineu, Maria Laura. \u201cBrazil Needs More Pesticide Regulation, Not Less.\u201d Human Rights Watch, December 23, 2019. https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2019\/12\/23\/brazil-needs-more-pesticide-regulation-not-less#.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cardoso, Fernando Henrique and Enzo Faletto. <em>Dependency and Development in Latin America<\/em>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Carr, Edward Hallett. <em>The Twenty Years\u2019 Crisis, 1919-1939: Introduction to the Study of International Relations<\/em>. New York: Harper Perennial. 1964 (1939).<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Carranza, Mario E. \u201cMERCOSUR, The Free Trade Area of The Americas and the Future of U.S. Hegemony in Latin America.\u201d <em>Fordham International Law Journal<\/em> 27, n. 3 (2003), 1028-1069.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Clark, Ann Marie, Elisabeth J. Friedman, and Kathryn Hochsteller. \u201cThe Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN Work Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women.\u201d <em>World Politics<\/em> 51, n. 1 (October, 1998), 1-35.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Clausewitz, Carl Von. <em>On War<\/em>. Translated by J. J. Graham. Chatham: Kent Wordsworth Editions, 1997 [1827].<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Correlates of War. \u201cAbout the Correlates of War Project.\u201d Correlates of War. Accessed September 27, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/correlatesofwar.org\/\">https:\/\/correlatesofwar.org\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Croix, G. E. M. de Ste. <em>The Origins of the Peloponnesian War<\/em>. Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd.: London, 1972.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Curtis, Michael. <em>The Great Political Theories, Volumes 1 and 2<\/em>. New York: Avon Books, 1981.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Derian, James Der. <em>Critical Practices in International Theory: Selected Essays<\/em>.\u00a0 New York: Routledge, 2009.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Doyle, Michael W. <em>Ways of War and Peace<\/em>. New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company, Inc., 1997.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Enloe, Cynthia. <em>Bananas, Beaches, and Bases<\/em>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Grote, George. <em>A History of Greece<\/em>. Volume II. New York: American Book Exchange, 1881.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hobbes, Thomas. <em>Leviathan<\/em>. Edited by Michael Oakeshott. New York: Collier Books, 1962 (1651).<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hobson, John A.\u00a0 <em>Imperialism: A Study<\/em>. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2005 (1902). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/ruleoflaw\/thematic-areas\/international-law-courts-tribunals\/international-hybrid-criminal-courts-tribunals\/\">http:\/\/oll-resources.s3.amazonaws.com\/titles\/278\/0175_Bk.pdf<\/a>\u00a0 Accessed 05\/13\/2020 Digitally formatted by Online Liberty Fund<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">\u201cHome.\u201d Home | African Union. The African Union Commission. Accessed September 27, 2021. https:\/\/au.int\/.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Human Rights Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/topics\/cyber-warfare.html\">https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2019\/12\/23\/brazil-needs-more-pesticide-regulation-not-less#<\/a> accessed 4\/29\/2020<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">IDMC. IDMC, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.internal-displacement.org\/\">https:\/\/www.internal-displacement.org\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">International Monetary Fund. \u201cInternational Monetary Fund &#8211; Homepage.\u201d IMF, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/home\">https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/home<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). \u201cOfficial Web Site of the IAEA.\u201d International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2021. https:\/\/www.iaea.org\/.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">INTERPOL. \u201cThe International Criminal Police Organization.\u201d INTERPOL, 2021. https:\/\/www.interpol.int\/.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">IOM. \u201cIOM UN Migration.\u201d International Organization for Migration, 2021. https:\/\/www.iom.int\/.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ionesco, Dina. \u201cLet\u2019s Talk About Climate Migrants, Not Climate Refugees.\u201d 06 June 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/thehill.com\/opinion\/cybersecurity\/390601-north-koreas-nuclear-threat-is-nothing-compared-to-its-cyber-warfare\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2019\/06\/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees\/<\/a> Accessed 05\/05\/2020<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Kennan, George F.\u00a0 <em>Memoirs 1925-1950<\/em>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">World Trade Organization. \u201cWorld Trade Organization &#8211; Global Trade.\u201d World Trade Organization &#8211; Home page &#8211; Global trade, 2021. https:\/\/www.wto.org\/.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":33,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"Chapter 3","pb_subtitle":"International Relations","pb_authors":["dr-elsa-dias","dr-rick-foster"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[48],"contributor":[60,61],"license":[56],"class_list":["post-52","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless","contributor-dr-elsa-dias","contributor-dr-rick-foster","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":24,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/33"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":112,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52\/revisions\/112"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/24"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=52"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=52"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=52"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/intro-to-political-science\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=52"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}