{"id":72,"date":"2021-09-16T19:28:26","date_gmt":"2021-09-16T19:28:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeography\/chapter\/2-3-mineral-groups-physical-geology-2nd-edition\/"},"modified":"2022-02-02T16:49:55","modified_gmt":"2022-02-02T16:49:55","slug":"2-3-mineral-groups-physical-geology-2nd-edition","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/chapter\/2-3-mineral-groups-physical-geology-2nd-edition\/","title":{"raw":"2.3 Mineral Groups \u2014 Physical Geology \u2013 2nd Edition","rendered":"2.3 Mineral Groups \u2014 Physical Geology \u2013 2nd Edition"},"content":{"raw":"
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2.3 Mineral Groups<\/h1>\r\nMost minerals are made up of a cation (a positively charged ion) or several cations, plus an anion (a negatively charged ion (e.g., S2\u2212<\/sup>)) or an anion complex (e.g., SO4<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup>).\u00a0<\/sub>For example, in the mineral hematite (Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>), the cation is Fe3+\u00a0<\/sup>(iron) and the anion is O2\u2212<\/sup>\u00a0(oxygen). The two Fe3+\u00a0<\/sup>ions have an overall charge of +6 and that balances the overall charge of \u22126 from the three O2\u2212\u00a0<\/sup>ions.\r\n\r\nWe group minerals into classes on the basis of their predominant anion or anion complex. These include oxides, sulfide, carbonates, silicates, and others. Silicates are by far the predominant group in terms of their abundance within the crust and mantle. (They will be discussed in Section 2.4). Some examples of minerals from the different mineral groups are given in Table 2.4.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Table 2.4 The main mineral groups and some examples of minerals in each group.<\/caption>\r\n
[Skip Table]<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Group<\/th>\r\nExamples<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
Oxides<\/strong><\/td>\r\nHematite (iron oxide Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>), corundum (aluminum oxide Al2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>), water ice (H2<\/sub>O)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Sulfides<\/strong><\/td>\r\nGalena (lead sulfide PbS), pyrite (iron sulfide FeS2<\/sub>), chalcopyrite (copper-iron sulfide CuFeS2<\/sub>)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Sulfates<\/strong><\/td>\r\nGypsum (calcium sulfate CaSO4<\/sub>\u00b7H2<\/sub>O), barite (barium sulfate BaSO4<\/sub>)\u00a0(Note that sulfates are different from sulfides. Sulfates have the SO4<\/sub>\u22122<\/sup> ion while sulfides have the S\u22122<\/sup>\u00a0ion)<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Halides<\/strong><\/td>\r\nFluorite (calcium fluoride CaF2<\/sub>), halite (sodium chloride NaCl)\u00a0(Halide minerals have halogen elements as their anion \u2014 the minerals in the second last column on the right side of the periodic table, including F, Cl, Br, etc. \u2014 see the periodic table in\u00a0Appendix 1: List of Geologically Important Elements and the Periodic Table<\/a>.)<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Carbonates<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCalcite (calcium carbonate CaCO3<\/sub>), dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate (Ca,Mg)CO3<\/sub>)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Phosphates<\/strong><\/td>\r\nApatite (Ca5<\/sub>(PO4<\/sub>)3(OH)), Turquoise (CuAl6<\/sub>(PO4<\/sub>)4(OH)8<\/sub>\u00b7<\/strong>5H2<\/sub>O)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Silicates<\/strong><\/td>\r\nQuartz (SiO2<\/sub>), feldspar (sodium-aluminum silicate NaAlSi3<\/sub>O8<\/sub>), olivine (iron or magnesium silicate (Mg,Fe)2<\/sub>SiO4<\/sub>)\u00a0\u00a0 (Note that in quartz the anion is oxygen, and while it could be argued, therefore, that quartz is an oxide, it is always classed with the silicates.)<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Native minerals<\/strong><\/td>\r\nGold (Au), diamond (C), graphite (C), sulfur (S), copper (Cu)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nOxide<\/span><\/strong> minerals have oxygen (O2\u2212<\/sup>) as their anion, but they exclude those with oxygen complexes such as carbonate (CO3<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup>), sulfate (SO4<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup>), and silicate (SiO4<\/sub>4\u2212<\/sup>). The most important oxides are the iron oxides hematite and magnetite (Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub> and Fe3<\/sub>O4<\/sub>, respectively). Both of these are common ores of iron. Corundum (Al2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>) is used as an abrasive, but can also be a gemstone in its ruby and sapphire varieties. If the oxygen is also combined with hydrogen to form the hydroxyl anion (OH\u2212<\/sup>) the mineral is known as a hydroxide<\/span><\/strong>. Some important hydroxides are limonite and bauxite, which are ores of iron and aluminum respectively. Frozen water (H2<\/sub>O) is a mineral (an oxide), but liquid water is not because it doesn\u2019t have a regular lattice.\r\n\r\nSulfides<\/span><\/strong> are minerals with the S\u22122<\/sup> anion, and they include galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2<\/sub>), and molybdenite (MoS2<\/sub>), which are the most important ores of lead, zinc, copper, and molybdenum respectively. Some other sulfide minerals are pyrite (FeS2<\/sub>), bornite (Cu5<\/sub>FeS4<\/sub>), stibnite (Sb2<\/sub>S3<\/sub>), and arsenopyrite (FeAsS).\r\n\r\nSulfates<\/span><\/strong> are minerals with the SO4<\/sub>\u22122<\/sup> anion, and these include anhydrite (CaSO4<\/sub>) and its cousin gypsum (CaSO4<\/sub>.2H2<\/sub>O) and the sulfates of barium and strontium: barite (BaSO4<\/sub>) and celestite (SrSO4<\/sub>). In all of these minerals, the cation has a +2 charge, which balances the \u22122 charge on the sulfate ion.\r\n\r\nThe halides<\/span><\/strong> are so named because the anions include the halogen<\/span><\/strong> elements chlorine, fluorine, bromine, etc. Examples are halite (NaCl), cryolite (Na3<\/sub>AlF6<\/sub>), and fluorite (CaF2<\/sub>).\r\n\r\nThe carbonates<\/span><\/strong> include minerals in which the anion is the CO3<\/sub>\u22122<\/sup> complex. The carbonate combines with +2 cations to form minerals such as calcite (CaCO3<\/sub>), magnesite (MgCO3<\/sub>), dolomite ((Ca,Mg)CO3<\/sub>)[1]<\/sup><\/a>, and siderite (FeCO3<\/sub>). The copper minerals malachite and azurite are also carbonates.\r\n\r\nIn phosphate<\/span><\/strong> minerals, the anion is the PO4<\/sub>\u22123<\/sup> complex. An important phosphate mineral is apatite (Ca5<\/sub>(PO4<\/sub>)3<\/sub>(OH)), which is what your teeth are made of. Note that it is called a phosphate, not a hydroxide, even though it has a hydroxyl ion.\r\n\r\nThe silicate<\/span><\/strong> minerals include the elements silicon and oxygen in varying proportions ranging from Si\u00a0: O2<\/sub>\u00a0to Si : O4<\/sub>. These are discussed at length in Section 2.4.\r\n\r\nNative minerals<\/span><\/strong> are single-element minerals, such as gold, copper, sulfur, and graphite.\r\n
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\r\n\r\nWe classify minerals according to the anion part of the mineral formula, and mineral formulas are always written with the anion part on the right. For example, for pyrite (FeS2<\/sub>), Fe2+<\/sup> is the cation and S\u2212<\/sup> is the anion. This helps us to know that it\u2019s a sulfide, but it is not always that obvious. Hematite (Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>) is an oxide; that\u2019s easy, but anhydrite (CaSO4<\/sub>) is a sulfate because SO4<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup> is the anion, not O. Along the same lines, calcite (CaCO3<\/sub>) is a carbonate, and olivine (Mg2<\/sub>SiO4<\/sub>) is a silicate. Minerals with only one element (such as S) are native minerals, while those with an anion from the halogen column of the periodic table (Cl, F, Br, etc.) are halides. Provide group names for the following minerals:\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Table 2.5 Provide group names for the following minerals<\/caption>\r\n
[Skip Table]<\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Name<\/th>\r\nFormula<\/th>\r\nGroup<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
sphalerite<\/td>\r\nZnS<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
magnetite<\/td>\r\nFe3<\/sub>O4<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
pyroxene<\/td>\r\nMgSiO3<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
anglesite<\/td>\r\nPbSO4<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
sylvite<\/td>\r\nKCl<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
silver<\/td>\r\nAg<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
fluorite<\/td>\r\nCaF2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
ilmenite<\/td>\r\nFeTiO3<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
siderite<\/td>\r\nFeCO3<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
feldspar<\/td>\r\nKAlSi3<\/sub>O8<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
sulfur<\/td>\r\nS<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
xenotime<\/td>\r\nYPO4<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/a>See Appendix 3 for Exercise 2.2 answers<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n
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    \r\n \t
  1. The notations of two (or more) elements enclosed in parentheses with a comma between them: (Ca,Mg), indicates that both can be present, in varying proportions, but that there is still only one of them for each anion present. \u21b5<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n","rendered":"
    \n
    \n

    2.3 Mineral Groups<\/h1>\n

    Most minerals are made up of a cation (a positively charged ion) or several cations, plus an anion (a negatively charged ion (e.g., S2\u2212<\/sup>)) or an anion complex (e.g., SO4<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup>).\u00a0<\/sub>For example, in the mineral hematite (Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>), the cation is Fe3+\u00a0<\/sup>(iron) and the anion is O2\u2212<\/sup>\u00a0(oxygen). The two Fe3+\u00a0<\/sup>ions have an overall charge of +6 and that balances the overall charge of \u22126 from the three O2\u2212\u00a0<\/sup>ions.<\/p>\n

    We group minerals into classes on the basis of their predominant anion or anion complex. These include oxides, sulfide, carbonates, silicates, and others. Silicates are by far the predominant group in terms of their abundance within the crust and mantle. (They will be discussed in Section 2.4). Some examples of minerals from the different mineral groups are given in Table 2.4.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 2.4 The main mineral groups and some examples of minerals in each group.<\/caption>\n
    [Skip Table]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Group<\/th>\nExamples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    Oxides<\/strong><\/td>\nHematite (iron oxide Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>), corundum (aluminum oxide Al2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>), water ice (H2<\/sub>O)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Sulfides<\/strong><\/td>\nGalena (lead sulfide PbS), pyrite (iron sulfide FeS2<\/sub>), chalcopyrite (copper-iron sulfide CuFeS2<\/sub>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Sulfates<\/strong><\/td>\nGypsum (calcium sulfate CaSO4<\/sub>\u00b7H2<\/sub>O), barite (barium sulfate BaSO4<\/sub>)\u00a0(Note that sulfates are different from sulfides. Sulfates have the SO4<\/sub>\u22122<\/sup> ion while sulfides have the S\u22122<\/sup>\u00a0ion)<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Halides<\/strong><\/td>\nFluorite (calcium fluoride CaF2<\/sub>), halite (sodium chloride NaCl)\u00a0(Halide minerals have halogen elements as their anion \u2014 the minerals in the second last column on the right side of the periodic table, including F, Cl, Br, etc. \u2014 see the periodic table in\u00a0Appendix 1: List of Geologically Important Elements and the Periodic Table<\/a>.)<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Carbonates<\/strong><\/td>\nCalcite (calcium carbonate CaCO3<\/sub>), dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate (Ca,Mg)CO3<\/sub>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Phosphates<\/strong><\/td>\nApatite (Ca5<\/sub>(PO4<\/sub>)3(OH)), Turquoise (CuAl6<\/sub>(PO4<\/sub>)4(OH)8<\/sub>\u00b7<\/strong>5H2<\/sub>O)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Silicates<\/strong><\/td>\nQuartz (SiO2<\/sub>), feldspar (sodium-aluminum silicate NaAlSi3<\/sub>O8<\/sub>), olivine (iron or magnesium silicate (Mg,Fe)2<\/sub>SiO4<\/sub>)\u00a0\u00a0 (Note that in quartz the anion is oxygen, and while it could be argued, therefore, that quartz is an oxide, it is always classed with the silicates.)<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Native minerals<\/strong><\/td>\nGold (Au), diamond (C), graphite (C), sulfur (S), copper (Cu)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    Oxide<\/span><\/strong> minerals have oxygen (O2\u2212<\/sup>) as their anion, but they exclude those with oxygen complexes such as carbonate (CO3<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup>), sulfate (SO4<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup>), and silicate (SiO4<\/sub>4\u2212<\/sup>). The most important oxides are the iron oxides hematite and magnetite (Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub> and Fe3<\/sub>O4<\/sub>, respectively). Both of these are common ores of iron. Corundum (Al2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>) is used as an abrasive, but can also be a gemstone in its ruby and sapphire varieties. If the oxygen is also combined with hydrogen to form the hydroxyl anion (OH\u2212<\/sup>) the mineral is known as a hydroxide<\/span><\/strong>. Some important hydroxides are limonite and bauxite, which are ores of iron and aluminum respectively. Frozen water (H2<\/sub>O) is a mineral (an oxide), but liquid water is not because it doesn\u2019t have a regular lattice.<\/p>\n

    Sulfides<\/span><\/strong> are minerals with the S\u22122<\/sup> anion, and they include galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2<\/sub>), and molybdenite (MoS2<\/sub>), which are the most important ores of lead, zinc, copper, and molybdenum respectively. Some other sulfide minerals are pyrite (FeS2<\/sub>), bornite (Cu5<\/sub>FeS4<\/sub>), stibnite (Sb2<\/sub>S3<\/sub>), and arsenopyrite (FeAsS).<\/p>\n

    Sulfates<\/span><\/strong> are minerals with the SO4<\/sub>\u22122<\/sup> anion, and these include anhydrite (CaSO4<\/sub>) and its cousin gypsum (CaSO4<\/sub>.2H2<\/sub>O) and the sulfates of barium and strontium: barite (BaSO4<\/sub>) and celestite (SrSO4<\/sub>). In all of these minerals, the cation has a +2 charge, which balances the \u22122 charge on the sulfate ion.<\/p>\n

    The halides<\/span><\/strong> are so named because the anions include the halogen<\/span><\/strong> elements chlorine, fluorine, bromine, etc. Examples are halite (NaCl), cryolite (Na3<\/sub>AlF6<\/sub>), and fluorite (CaF2<\/sub>).<\/p>\n

    The carbonates<\/span><\/strong> include minerals in which the anion is the CO3<\/sub>\u22122<\/sup> complex. The carbonate combines with +2 cations to form minerals such as calcite (CaCO3<\/sub>), magnesite (MgCO3<\/sub>), dolomite ((Ca,Mg)CO3<\/sub>)[1]<\/sup><\/a>, and siderite (FeCO3<\/sub>). The copper minerals malachite and azurite are also carbonates.<\/p>\n

    In phosphate<\/span><\/strong> minerals, the anion is the PO4<\/sub>\u22123<\/sup> complex. An important phosphate mineral is apatite (Ca5<\/sub>(PO4<\/sub>)3<\/sub>(OH)), which is what your teeth are made of. Note that it is called a phosphate, not a hydroxide, even though it has a hydroxyl ion.<\/p>\n

    The silicate<\/span><\/strong> minerals include the elements silicon and oxygen in varying proportions ranging from Si\u00a0: O2<\/sub>\u00a0to Si : O4<\/sub>. These are discussed at length in Section 2.4.<\/p>\n

    Native minerals<\/span><\/strong> are single-element minerals, such as gold, copper, sulfur, and graphite.<\/p>\n

    \n
    \n

    We classify minerals according to the anion part of the mineral formula, and mineral formulas are always written with the anion part on the right. For example, for pyrite (FeS2<\/sub>), Fe2+<\/sup> is the cation and S\u2212<\/sup> is the anion. This helps us to know that it\u2019s a sulfide, but it is not always that obvious. Hematite (Fe2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>) is an oxide; that\u2019s easy, but anhydrite (CaSO4<\/sub>) is a sulfate because SO4<\/sub>2\u2212<\/sup> is the anion, not O. Along the same lines, calcite (CaCO3<\/sub>) is a carbonate, and olivine (Mg2<\/sub>SiO4<\/sub>) is a silicate. Minerals with only one element (such as S) are native minerals, while those with an anion from the halogen column of the periodic table (Cl, F, Br, etc.) are halides. Provide group names for the following minerals:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 2.5 Provide group names for the following minerals<\/caption>\n
    [Skip Table]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Name<\/th>\nFormula<\/th>\nGroup<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    sphalerite<\/td>\nZnS<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    magnetite<\/td>\nFe3<\/sub>O4<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    pyroxene<\/td>\nMgSiO3<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    anglesite<\/td>\nPbSO4<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    sylvite<\/td>\nKCl<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    silver<\/td>\nAg<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    fluorite<\/td>\nCaF2<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    ilmenite<\/td>\nFeTiO3<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    siderite<\/td>\nFeCO3<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    feldspar<\/td>\nKAlSi3<\/sub>O8<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    sulfur<\/td>\nS<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    xenotime<\/td>\nYPO4<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/a>See Appendix 3 for Exercise 2.2 answers<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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    \n
      \n
    1. The notations of two (or more) elements enclosed in parentheses with a comma between them: (Ca,Mg), indicates that both can be present, in varying proportions, but that there is still only one of them for each anion present. \u21b5<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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