{"id":28,"date":"2021-09-16T19:28:20","date_gmt":"2021-09-16T19:28:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeography\/chapter\/table-of-contents-physical-geology-2nd-edition\/"},"modified":"2022-01-06T02:25:19","modified_gmt":"2022-01-06T02:25:19","slug":"table-of-contents-physical-geology-2nd-edition","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/chapter\/table-of-contents-physical-geology-2nd-edition\/","title":{"raw":"Table Of Contents \u2014 Physical Geology \u2013 2nd Edition","rendered":"Table Of Contents \u2014 Physical Geology \u2013 2nd Edition"},"content":{"raw":"<div id=\"toc\">\r\n<h1>Contents<\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"front-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"front-matter-002-exceptions-to-the-cc-by-licence.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Exceptions to the CC BY Licence<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"front-matter acknowledgements\"><a href=\"front-matter-003-acknowledgments.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Acknowledgments<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"front-matter preface\"><a href=\"front-matter-004-preface.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Preface<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-001-chapter-1-introduction-to-geology.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 1 Introduction to Geology<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-001-slug-1-1-what-is-geology.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.1 What is Geology?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-002-slug-1-2-why-study-earth.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.2 Why Study Earth?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-003-slug-1-3-what-do-geologists-do.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.3 What Do Geologists Do?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-004-slug-1-4-minerals-and-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.4 Minerals and Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-005-slug-1-5-fundamentals-of-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.5 Fundamentals of Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-006-slug-1-6-geological-time.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.6 Geological Time<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-007-summary-1.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-002-chapter-2.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 2 Minerals<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-008-slug-2-1-electrons-protons-neutrons-and-atoms.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.1 Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, and Atoms<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-009-slug-2-2-bonding-and-lattices.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.2 Bonding and Lattices<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-010-slug-2-3-mineral-groups.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.3 Mineral Groups<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-011-slug-2-4-silicate-minerals.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.4 Silicate Minerals<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-012-slug-2-5-formation-of-minerals.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.5 Formation of Minerals<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-013-slug-2-6-mineral-properties.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.6 Mineral Properties<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-014-summary-2.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-003-chapter-3-intrusive-igneous-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 3 Intrusive Igneous Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-015-slug-3-1-the-rock-cycle.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.1 The Rock Cycle<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-016-slug-3-2-magma-and-magma-formation.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.2 Magma and Magma Formation<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-017-slug-3-3-crystallization-of-magma.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.3 Crystallization of Magma<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-018-slug-3-4-classification-of-igneous-rock.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.4 Classification of Igneous Rock<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-019-slug-3-5-intrusive-igneous-bodies.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.5 Intrusive Igneous Bodies<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-020-summary-3.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-004-chapter-4-volcanism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 4 Volcanism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-021-slug-4-1-plate-tectonics-and-volcanism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.1 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-022-slug-4-2-magma-composition-and-eruption-style.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.2 Magma Composition and Eruption Style<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-023-slug-4-3-types-of-volcanoes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.3 Types of Volcanoes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-024-slug-4-4-volcanic-hazards.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.4 Volcanic Hazards<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-025-slug-4-5-monitoring-volcanoes-and-predicting-eruptions.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.5 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-026-slug-4-6-volcanoes-in-british-columbia.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.6 Volcanoes in British Columbia<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-027-summary-4.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-005-chapter-5-weathering-and-soil.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 5 Weathering and Soil<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-028-slug-5-1-mechanical-weathering.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.1 Mechanical Weathering<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-029-slug-5-2-chemical-weathering.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.2 Chemical Weathering<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-030-slug-5-3-the-products-of-weathering-and-erosion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.3 The Products of Weathering and Erosion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-031-slug-5-4-weathering-and-the-formation-of-soil.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.4 Weathering and the Formation of Soil<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-032-slug-5-5-the-soils-of-canada.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.5 The Soils of Canada<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-033-slug-5-6-weathering-and-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.6 Weathering and Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-034-summary-5.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-006-chapter-6-sediments-and-sedimentary-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-035-slug-6-1-clastic-sedimentary-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-036-slug-6-2-chemical-sedimentary-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-037-slug-6-3-depositional-environments-and-sedimentary-basins.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-038-slug-6-4-sedimentary-structures-and-fossils.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.4 Sedimentary Structures and Fossils<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-039-slug-6-5-groups-formations-and-members.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.5 Groups, Formations, and Members<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-040-summary-6.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-007-chapter-7-metamorphism-and-metamorphic-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-041-slug-7-1-controls-over-metamorphic-processes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.1 Controls Over Metamorphic Processes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-042-slug-7-2-classification-of-metamorphic-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.2 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-043-slug-7-3-plate-tectonics-and-metamorphism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.3 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-044-slug-7-4-regional-metamorphism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.4 Regional Metamorphism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-045-slug-7-5-contact-metamorphism-and-hydrothermal-processes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.5 Contact Metamorphism and Hydrothermal Processes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-046-summary-7.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-047-slug-7-6-review-of-minerals-and-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Review of Minerals and Rocks<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-subtitle\">Mineral and rock review<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Steven Earle<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-008-chapter-8-measuring-geological-time.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 8 Measuring Geological Time<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-048-slug-8-1-the-geological-time-scale.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.1 The Geological Time Scale<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-049-slug-8-2-relative-dating-methods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.2 Relative Dating Methods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-050-slug-8-3-dating-rocks-using-fossils.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.3 Dating Rocks Using Fossils<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-051-slug-8-4-isotopic-dating-methods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.4 Isotopic Dating Methods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-052-slug-8-5-other-dating-methods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.5 Other Dating Methods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-053-slug-8-6-understanding-geological-time.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.6 Understanding Geological Time<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-054-summary-8.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-009-chapter-9-earths-interior.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 9 Earth\u2019s Interior<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-055-slug-9-1-understanding-earth-through-seismology.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.1 Understanding Earth Through Seismology<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-056-slug-9-2-the-temperature-of-earths-interior.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.2 The Temperature of Earth\u2019s Interior<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-057-slug-9-3-earths-magnetic-field.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.3 Earth\u2019s Magnetic Field<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-058-slug-9-4-isostasy.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.4 Isostasy<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-059-summary-9.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-010-chapter-10-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-060-slug-10-1-alfred-wegener-the-father-of-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.1 Alfred Wegener: The Father of Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-061-slug-10-2-global-geological-models-of-the-early-20th-century.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-062-slug-10-3-geological-renaissance-of-the-mid-20th-century.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-063-slug-10-4-plate-plate-motions-and-plate-boundary-processes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.4 Plate, Plate Motions, and Plate Boundary Processes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-064-slug-10-5-mechanisms-for-plate-motion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.5 Mechanisms for Plate Motion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-065-summary-10.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-011-chapter-11-earthquakes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 11 Earthquakes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-066-slug-11-1-what-is-an-earthquake.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.1 What is an Earthquake?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-067-slug-11-2-earthquakes-and-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.2 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-068-slug-11-3-measuring-earthquakes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.3 Measuring Earthquakes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-069-slug-11-4-the-impacts-of-earthquakes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.4 The Impacts of Earthquakes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-070-slug-11-5-forecasting-earthquakes-and-minimizing-damage-and-casualties.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Damage and Casualties<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-071-summary-11.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-012-chapter-12-geological-structures.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 12 Geological Structures<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-072-slug-12-1-stress-and-strain.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.1 Stress and Strain<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-073-slug-12-2-folding.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.2 Folding<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-074-slug-12-3-fracturing-and-faulting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.3 Fracturing and Faulting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-075-slug-12-4-measuring-geological-structures.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.4 Measuring Geological Structures<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-076-summary-12.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-013-chapter-13-streams-and-floods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 13 Streams and Floods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-077-slug-13-1-the-hydrological-cycle.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.1 The Hydrological Cycle<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-078-slug-13-2-drainage-basins.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.2 Drainage Basins<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-079-slug-13-3-stream-erosion-and-deposition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.3 Stream Erosion and Deposition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-080-slug-13-4-stream-types.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.4 Stream Types<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-081-slug-13-5-flooding.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.5 Flooding<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-082-summary-13.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-014-chapter-14-groundwater.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 14 Groundwater<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-083-slug-14-1-groundwater-and-aquifers.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.1 Groundwater and Aquifers<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-084-slug-14-2-groundwater-flow.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.2 Groundwater Flow<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-085-slug-14-3-groundwater-extraction.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.3 Groundwater Extraction<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-086-slug-14-4-groundwater-quality.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.4 Groundwater Quality<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-087-summary-14.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-015-chapter-15-mass-wasting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 15 Mass Wasting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-088-slug-15-1-factors-that-control-slope-stability.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">15.1 Factors That Control Slope Stability<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-089-slug-15-2-classification-of-mass-wasting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">15.2 Classification of Mass Wasting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-090-slug-15-3-preventing-delaying-monitoring-and-mitigating-mass-wasting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">15.3 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass Wasting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-091-summary-15.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-016-chapter-16-glaciation.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 16 Glaciation<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-092-slug-16-1-glacial-periods-in-earths-history.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.1 Glacial Periods in Earth\u2019s History<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-093-slug-16-2-how-glaciers-work.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.2 How Glaciers Work<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-094-slug-16-3-glacial-erosion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.3 Glacial Erosion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-095-slug-16-4-glacial-deposition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.4 Glacial Deposition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-096-summary-16.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-017-chapter-17-shorelines.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 17 Shorelines<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-097-slug-17-1-waves.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.1 Waves<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-098-slug-17-2-landforms-and-coastal-erosion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.2 Landforms and Coastal Erosion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-099-slug-17-3-landforms-and-coastal-deposition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.3 Landforms and Coastal Deposition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-100-slug-17-4-sea-level-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.4 Sea-Level Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-101-slug-17-5-human-interference-with-shorelines.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.5 Human Interference with Shorelines<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-102-summary-17.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-018-chapter-18-geology-of-the-oceans.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 18 Geology of the Oceans<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-103-slug-18-1-the-topography-of-the-sea-floor.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.1 The Topography of the Sea Floor<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-104-slug-18-2-the-geology-of-the-oceanic-crust.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.2 The Geology of the Oceanic Crust<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-105-slug-18-3-sea-floor-sediments.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.3 Sea-Floor Sediments<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-106-slug-18-4-ocean-water.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.4 Ocean Water<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-107-summary-18.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-019-chapter-19-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 19 Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-108-slug-19-1-what-makes-the-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">19.1 What Makes the Climate Change?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-109-slug-19-2-anthropogenic-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">19.2 Anthropogenic Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-110-slug-19-3-implications-of-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">19.3 Implications of Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-111-summary-19.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-020-chapter-20-geological-resources.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 20 Geological Resources<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-112-slug-20-1-metal-deposits.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.1 Metal Deposits<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-113-slug-20-2-industrial-materials.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.2 Industrial Materials<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-114-slug-20-3-fossil-fuels.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.3 Fossil Fuels<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-115-slug-20-4-diamonds.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.4 Diamonds<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-116-summary-20.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-021-chapter-21-geological-history-of-western-canada.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 21 Geological History of Western Canada<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-117-slug-21-1-geological-history-of-canada.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.1 Geological History of Canada<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-118-slug-21-2-western-canada-during-the-precambrian.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.2 Western Canada during the Precambrian<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-119-slug-21-3-western-canada-during-the-paleozoic.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.3 Western Canada during the Paleozoic<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-120-slug-21-4-western-canada-during-the-mesozoic.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.4 Western Canada during the Mesozoic<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-121-slug-21-5-western-canada-during-the-cenozoic.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.5 Western Canada During the Cenozoic<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-122-summary-21.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-022-chapter-22-the-origin-of-earth-and-the-solar-system.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 22 The Origin of Earth and the Solar System<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-123-slug-22-1-starting-with-a-big-bang.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.1 Starting with a Big Bang<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-124-slug-22-2-forming-planets-from-the-remnants-of-exploding-stars.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploding Stars<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-125-slug-22-3-how-to-build-a-solar-system.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.3 How to Build a Solar System<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-126-slug-22-4-earths-first-2-billion-years.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.4 Earth\u2019s First 2 Billion Years<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-127-slug-22-5-are-there-other-earths.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.5 Are There Other Earths?<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-128-summary-22.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-001-glossary.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Glossary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-002-about-the-author.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">About the Author<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-003-appendix-1-list-of-geologically-important-elements-and-the-periodic-table.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Appendix 1: List of Geologically Important Elements and the Periodic Table<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-004-appendix-2-answers-to-review-questions.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Appendix 2: Answers to Review Questions<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-005-appendix-3-answers-to-exercises.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Appendix 3: Answers to Exercises<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-006-links-for-print-edition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Links for Print Edition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-007-versioning-history.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Versioning History<\/span><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div id=\"toc\">\n<h1>Contents<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"front-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"front-matter-002-exceptions-to-the-cc-by-licence.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Exceptions to the CC BY Licence<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"front-matter acknowledgements\"><a href=\"front-matter-003-acknowledgments.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Acknowledgments<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"front-matter preface\"><a href=\"front-matter-004-preface.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Preface<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-001-chapter-1-introduction-to-geology.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 1 Introduction to Geology<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-001-slug-1-1-what-is-geology.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.1 What is Geology?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-002-slug-1-2-why-study-earth.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.2 Why Study Earth?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-003-slug-1-3-what-do-geologists-do.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.3 What Do Geologists Do?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-004-slug-1-4-minerals-and-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.4 Minerals and Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-005-slug-1-5-fundamentals-of-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.5 Fundamentals of Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-006-slug-1-6-geological-time.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">1.6 Geological Time<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-007-summary-1.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-002-chapter-2.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 2 Minerals<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-008-slug-2-1-electrons-protons-neutrons-and-atoms.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.1 Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, and Atoms<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-009-slug-2-2-bonding-and-lattices.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.2 Bonding and Lattices<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-010-slug-2-3-mineral-groups.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.3 Mineral Groups<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-011-slug-2-4-silicate-minerals.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.4 Silicate Minerals<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-012-slug-2-5-formation-of-minerals.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.5 Formation of Minerals<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-013-slug-2-6-mineral-properties.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">2.6 Mineral Properties<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-014-summary-2.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-003-chapter-3-intrusive-igneous-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 3 Intrusive Igneous Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-015-slug-3-1-the-rock-cycle.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.1 The Rock Cycle<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-016-slug-3-2-magma-and-magma-formation.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.2 Magma and Magma Formation<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-017-slug-3-3-crystallization-of-magma.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.3 Crystallization of Magma<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-018-slug-3-4-classification-of-igneous-rock.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.4 Classification of Igneous Rock<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-019-slug-3-5-intrusive-igneous-bodies.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">3.5 Intrusive Igneous Bodies<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-020-summary-3.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-004-chapter-4-volcanism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 4 Volcanism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-021-slug-4-1-plate-tectonics-and-volcanism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.1 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-022-slug-4-2-magma-composition-and-eruption-style.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.2 Magma Composition and Eruption Style<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-023-slug-4-3-types-of-volcanoes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.3 Types of Volcanoes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-024-slug-4-4-volcanic-hazards.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.4 Volcanic Hazards<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-025-slug-4-5-monitoring-volcanoes-and-predicting-eruptions.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.5 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-026-slug-4-6-volcanoes-in-british-columbia.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">4.6 Volcanoes in British Columbia<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-027-summary-4.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-005-chapter-5-weathering-and-soil.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 5 Weathering and Soil<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-028-slug-5-1-mechanical-weathering.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.1 Mechanical Weathering<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-029-slug-5-2-chemical-weathering.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.2 Chemical Weathering<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-030-slug-5-3-the-products-of-weathering-and-erosion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.3 The Products of Weathering and Erosion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-031-slug-5-4-weathering-and-the-formation-of-soil.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.4 Weathering and the Formation of Soil<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-032-slug-5-5-the-soils-of-canada.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.5 The Soils of Canada<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-033-slug-5-6-weathering-and-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">5.6 Weathering and Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-034-summary-5.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-006-chapter-6-sediments-and-sedimentary-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-035-slug-6-1-clastic-sedimentary-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-036-slug-6-2-chemical-sedimentary-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-037-slug-6-3-depositional-environments-and-sedimentary-basins.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-038-slug-6-4-sedimentary-structures-and-fossils.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.4 Sedimentary Structures and Fossils<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-039-slug-6-5-groups-formations-and-members.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">6.5 Groups, Formations, and Members<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-040-summary-6.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-007-chapter-7-metamorphism-and-metamorphic-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-041-slug-7-1-controls-over-metamorphic-processes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.1 Controls Over Metamorphic Processes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-042-slug-7-2-classification-of-metamorphic-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.2 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-043-slug-7-3-plate-tectonics-and-metamorphism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.3 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-044-slug-7-4-regional-metamorphism.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.4 Regional Metamorphism<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-045-slug-7-5-contact-metamorphism-and-hydrothermal-processes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">7.5 Contact Metamorphism and Hydrothermal Processes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-046-summary-7.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-047-slug-7-6-review-of-minerals-and-rocks.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Review of Minerals and Rocks<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-subtitle\">Mineral and rock review<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Steven Earle<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-008-chapter-8-measuring-geological-time.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 8 Measuring Geological Time<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-048-slug-8-1-the-geological-time-scale.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.1 The Geological Time Scale<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-049-slug-8-2-relative-dating-methods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.2 Relative Dating Methods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-050-slug-8-3-dating-rocks-using-fossils.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.3 Dating Rocks Using Fossils<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-051-slug-8-4-isotopic-dating-methods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.4 Isotopic Dating Methods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-052-slug-8-5-other-dating-methods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.5 Other Dating Methods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-053-slug-8-6-understanding-geological-time.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">8.6 Understanding Geological Time<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-054-summary-8.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-009-chapter-9-earths-interior.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 9 Earth\u2019s Interior<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-055-slug-9-1-understanding-earth-through-seismology.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.1 Understanding Earth Through Seismology<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-056-slug-9-2-the-temperature-of-earths-interior.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.2 The Temperature of Earth\u2019s Interior<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-057-slug-9-3-earths-magnetic-field.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.3 Earth\u2019s Magnetic Field<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-058-slug-9-4-isostasy.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">9.4 Isostasy<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-059-summary-9.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-010-chapter-10-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-060-slug-10-1-alfred-wegener-the-father-of-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.1 Alfred Wegener: The Father of Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-061-slug-10-2-global-geological-models-of-the-early-20th-century.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-062-slug-10-3-geological-renaissance-of-the-mid-20th-century.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-063-slug-10-4-plate-plate-motions-and-plate-boundary-processes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.4 Plate, Plate Motions, and Plate Boundary Processes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-064-slug-10-5-mechanisms-for-plate-motion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">10.5 Mechanisms for Plate Motion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-065-summary-10.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-011-chapter-11-earthquakes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 11 Earthquakes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-066-slug-11-1-what-is-an-earthquake.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.1 What is an Earthquake?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-067-slug-11-2-earthquakes-and-plate-tectonics.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.2 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-068-slug-11-3-measuring-earthquakes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.3 Measuring Earthquakes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-069-slug-11-4-the-impacts-of-earthquakes.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.4 The Impacts of Earthquakes<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-070-slug-11-5-forecasting-earthquakes-and-minimizing-damage-and-casualties.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">11.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Damage and Casualties<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-071-summary-11.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-012-chapter-12-geological-structures.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 12 Geological Structures<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-072-slug-12-1-stress-and-strain.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.1 Stress and Strain<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-073-slug-12-2-folding.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.2 Folding<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-074-slug-12-3-fracturing-and-faulting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.3 Fracturing and Faulting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-075-slug-12-4-measuring-geological-structures.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">12.4 Measuring Geological Structures<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-076-summary-12.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-013-chapter-13-streams-and-floods.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 13 Streams and Floods<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-077-slug-13-1-the-hydrological-cycle.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.1 The Hydrological Cycle<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-078-slug-13-2-drainage-basins.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.2 Drainage Basins<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-079-slug-13-3-stream-erosion-and-deposition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.3 Stream Erosion and Deposition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-080-slug-13-4-stream-types.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.4 Stream Types<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-081-slug-13-5-flooding.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">13.5 Flooding<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-082-summary-13.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-014-chapter-14-groundwater.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 14 Groundwater<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-083-slug-14-1-groundwater-and-aquifers.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.1 Groundwater and Aquifers<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-084-slug-14-2-groundwater-flow.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.2 Groundwater Flow<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-085-slug-14-3-groundwater-extraction.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.3 Groundwater Extraction<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-086-slug-14-4-groundwater-quality.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">14.4 Groundwater Quality<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-087-summary-14.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-015-chapter-15-mass-wasting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 15 Mass Wasting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-088-slug-15-1-factors-that-control-slope-stability.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">15.1 Factors That Control Slope Stability<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-089-slug-15-2-classification-of-mass-wasting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">15.2 Classification of Mass Wasting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-090-slug-15-3-preventing-delaying-monitoring-and-mitigating-mass-wasting.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">15.3 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass Wasting<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-091-summary-15.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-016-chapter-16-glaciation.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 16 Glaciation<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-092-slug-16-1-glacial-periods-in-earths-history.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.1 Glacial Periods in Earth\u2019s History<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-093-slug-16-2-how-glaciers-work.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.2 How Glaciers Work<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-094-slug-16-3-glacial-erosion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.3 Glacial Erosion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-095-slug-16-4-glacial-deposition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">16.4 Glacial Deposition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-096-summary-16.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-017-chapter-17-shorelines.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 17 Shorelines<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-097-slug-17-1-waves.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.1 Waves<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-098-slug-17-2-landforms-and-coastal-erosion.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.2 Landforms and Coastal Erosion<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-099-slug-17-3-landforms-and-coastal-deposition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.3 Landforms and Coastal Deposition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-100-slug-17-4-sea-level-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.4 Sea-Level Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-101-slug-17-5-human-interference-with-shorelines.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">17.5 Human Interference with Shorelines<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-102-summary-17.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-018-chapter-18-geology-of-the-oceans.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 18 Geology of the Oceans<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-103-slug-18-1-the-topography-of-the-sea-floor.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.1 The Topography of the Sea Floor<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-104-slug-18-2-the-geology-of-the-oceanic-crust.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.2 The Geology of the Oceanic Crust<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-105-slug-18-3-sea-floor-sediments.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.3 Sea-Floor Sediments<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-106-slug-18-4-ocean-water.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">18.4 Ocean Water<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-107-summary-18.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-019-chapter-19-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 19 Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-108-slug-19-1-what-makes-the-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">19.1 What Makes the Climate Change?<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-109-slug-19-2-anthropogenic-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">19.2 Anthropogenic Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-110-slug-19-3-implications-of-climate-change.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">19.3 Implications of Climate Change<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-111-summary-19.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-020-chapter-20-geological-resources.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 20 Geological Resources<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-112-slug-20-1-metal-deposits.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.1 Metal Deposits<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-113-slug-20-2-industrial-materials.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.2 Industrial Materials<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-114-slug-20-3-fossil-fuels.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.3 Fossil Fuels<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-115-slug-20-4-diamonds.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">20.4 Diamonds<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-116-summary-20.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-021-chapter-21-geological-history-of-western-canada.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 21 Geological History of Western Canada<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-117-slug-21-1-geological-history-of-canada.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.1 Geological History of Canada<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-118-slug-21-2-western-canada-during-the-precambrian.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.2 Western Canada during the Precambrian<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-119-slug-21-3-western-canada-during-the-paleozoic.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.3 Western Canada during the Paleozoic<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-120-slug-21-4-western-canada-during-the-mesozoic.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.4 Western Canada during the Mesozoic<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-121-slug-21-5-western-canada-during-the-cenozoic.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">21.5 Western Canada During the Cenozoic<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-122-summary-21.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"part\"><a href=\"part-022-chapter-22-the-origin-of-earth-and-the-solar-system.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Chapter 22 The Origin of Earth and the Solar System<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-123-slug-22-1-starting-with-a-big-bang.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.1 Starting with a Big Bang<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-124-slug-22-2-forming-planets-from-the-remnants-of-exploding-stars.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploding Stars<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-125-slug-22-3-how-to-build-a-solar-system.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.3 How to Build a Solar System<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-126-slug-22-4-earths-first-2-billion-years.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.4 Earth\u2019s First 2 Billion Years<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-127-slug-22-5-are-there-other-earths.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">22.5 Are There Other Earths?<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"chapter standard\"><a href=\"chapter-128-summary-22.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Summary<\/span> <span class=\"chapter-author\">Karla Panchuk<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-001-glossary.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Glossary<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-002-about-the-author.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">About the Author<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-003-appendix-1-list-of-geologically-important-elements-and-the-periodic-table.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Appendix 1: List of Geologically Important Elements and the Periodic Table<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-004-appendix-2-answers-to-review-questions.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Appendix 2: Answers to Review Questions<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-005-appendix-3-answers-to-exercises.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Appendix 3: Answers to Exercises<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-006-links-for-print-edition.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Links for Print Edition<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"back-matter miscellaneous\"><a href=\"back-matter-007-versioning-history.html\"><span class=\"toc-chapter-title\">Versioning History<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":32,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-28","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":17,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/28","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/32"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/28\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1007,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/28\/revisions\/1007"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/17"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/28\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=28"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=28"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=28"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accphysicalgeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=28"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}