{"id":971,"date":"2022-02-22T18:36:17","date_gmt":"2022-02-22T18:36:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/chapter\/16-energy-and-mineral-resources\/"},"modified":"2025-01-21T01:03:30","modified_gmt":"2025-01-21T01:03:30","slug":"16-energy-and-mineral-resources","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/chapter\/16-energy-and-mineral-resources\/","title":{"raw":"16 Energy and Mineral Resources","rendered":"16 Energy and Mineral Resources"},"content":{"raw":"[caption id=\"attachment_4617\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"768\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-928 size-full\" title=\"&quot;I,\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum.jpg\" alt=\"The nugget has cube shapes.\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\"><\/a> The Latrobe Gold Nugget, as seen on display in the London Natural History Museum, is 717 grams and displays the rare cubic form of native gold. Most gold, even larger nuggets, grow in confined spaces where the euhedral nature of the mineral is not seen.[\/caption]\n<h1>16 Energy and Mineral Resources<\/h1>\n<b>KEY CONCEPTS<\/b>\n<ul>\n \t<li>Describe how a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0resource is different from a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0resource.<\/li>\n \t<li>Compare the pros and cons of extracting and using [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary] and conventional and unconventional [pb_glossary id=\"3337\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary] sources.<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe how [pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]metallic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] are formed\u00a0and extracted.<\/li>\n \t<li>Understand how society uses\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3346\"]nonmetallic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0resources.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4618\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.0_Stone-Tool.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-929 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.0_Stone-Tool-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The rock has a smooth side and a sharp side.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> A Mode 1 Oldowan tool used for chopping[\/caption]\n\nThis text has previously discussed geology\u2019s pioneers, such as scientists James Hutton and Charles Lyell, but the first real \u201cgeologists\u201d were the hominids who picked up stones and began the stone age. Maybe stones were first used as curiosity pieces, maybe as weapons, but ultimately, they were used as tools. This was the Paleolithic [pb_glossary id=\"2192\"]Period[\/pb_glossary], the beginning of geologic study, and it dates back 2.6 million years to east Africa.\n\nIn modern times, geologic knowledge is important for locating economically valuable materials for society\u2019s use. In fact, all things we use come from only three sources: they are farmed, hunted or fished, or [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary]. At the turn of the twentieth century, speculation was rampant that food supplies would not keep pace with world demand, suggesting the need to develop artificial fertilizers. Sources of fertilizer ingredients are: nitrogen is processed from the [pb_glossary id=\"2667\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], using the Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen; potassium comes from the [pb_glossary id=\"2666\"]hydrosphere[\/pb_glossary], such as lakes or ocean evaporation; and phosphorus is [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] from the [pb_glossary id=\"2590\"]lithosphere[\/pb_glossary], such as minerals like apatite from phosphorite rock, which is found in Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, Utah, and around the world. \u00a0Thus, without [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] and processing of natural materials, modern civilization would not exist. Indeed, geologists are essential in this process.\n<h2><strong>16.1 Mining<\/strong><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4619\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-930 size-large\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-1024x383.png\" alt=\"The map shows many different materials that are mined across the world.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"383\"><\/a> Map of world mining areas.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]Mining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0is defined as extracting valuable materials from the Earth for society\u2019s use. Usually, these include solid materials such as gold, iron,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], diamond, sand, and gravel, but materials can also include fluid resources such as\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary]. Modern\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has a long relationship with modern society. The oldest [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] dates back 40,000 years to the Lion Cavern in Swaziland where there is evidence of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0digging\u00a0 into the Earth for hematite, an important iron [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary] used as red dye. Resources extracted by\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are generally considered to be\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary].\n<h3><b>16.1.1. Renewable vs. nonrenewable resources<\/b><\/h3>\nResources generally come in two major categories:\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]Renewable[\/pb_glossary] resources can be reused over and over or their availability replicated over a short human life span; [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] resources cannot.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4621\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-931 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The dam has a large lake behind it\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Hoover Dam provides hydroelectric energy and stores water for southern Nevada.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]Renewable[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0resources<\/strong> are materials present in our environment that can be exploited and replenished. Some common [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] energy sources are linked with green energy sources because they are associated with relatively small or easily remediated environmental impact. For example, solar energy comes from [pb_glossary id=\"2198\"]fusion[\/pb_glossary] within the Sun, which radiates electromagnetic energy. This energy reaches the Earth constantly and consistently and should continue to do so for about five billion more years. Wind energy, also related to solar energy, is maybe the oldest [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] energy and is used to sail ships and power windmills. Both solar and wind-generated energy are variable on Earth\u2019s surface. These limitations are [pb_glossary id=\"3081\"]offset[\/pb_glossary] because we can use energy storing devices, such as batteries or electricity exchanges between producing sites. The Earth\u2019s heat, known as geothermal energy, can be viable anywhere that geologists drill deeply enough. In practice, geothermal energy is more useful where heat flow is great, such as [pb_glossary id=\"1181\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary] zones or regions with a thinner [pb_glossary id=\"2580\"]crust[\/pb_glossary]. Hydroelectric dams provide energy by allowing water to fall through the dam under gravity, which activates turbines that produce the energy. Ocean tides are also a reliable energy source. All of these [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] resources provide energy that powers society. Other [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] resources are plant and animal matter, which are used for food, clothing, and other necessities, but are being researched as possible energy sources.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4622\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Rough_diamond.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-932 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond-300x226.jpg\" alt=\"The diamond is clear and pyramidal.\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\"><\/a> Natural, octahedral shape of diamond.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]Nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0resources<\/strong> cannot be replenished at a sustainable rate. They are finite within human time frames. Many [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] resources come from planetary, [pb_glossary id=\"2576\"]tectonic[\/pb_glossary], or long-term biologic processes and include materials such as gold, lead, copper, diamonds, [pb_glossary id=\"2936\"]marble[\/pb_glossary], sand, [pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary]. Most [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] resources include specific [pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary] listed on the periodic table; some are compounds of those [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary]. For example, if society needs iron (Fe) sources, then an exploration geologist will search for iron-rich deposits that can be economically extracted. [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]Nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] resources may be abandoned when other materials become cheaper or serve a better purpose. For example, [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] is abundantly available in England and other nations, but because [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary] are available at a lower cost and lower environmental impact, [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] use has decreased. Economic competition among [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] resources is shifting use away from [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] in many developed countries.\n<h3><b>16.1.2. Ore<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4623\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/MichiganBIF.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-933 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-300x206.jpg\" alt=\"The rock shows red and brown layering.\" width=\"300\" height=\"206\"><\/a> Banded-iron formations are an important ore of iron (Fe).[\/caption]\n\nEarth\u2019s materials include the\u00a0periodic table [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary]. However, it is rare that\u00a0these [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary] are [pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0to the point where it is profitable to extract and process the material into usable products. Any place where a valuable material is\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is a geologic and geochemical\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1719\"]anomaly[\/pb_glossary]. A body of material from which one or more valuable substances can be\u00a0mined\u00a0at a profit, is called an\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0deposit. Typically, the term\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is used for only metal-bearing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], but it can be applied to valuable [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0resource concentrations such as [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary], building stones, and other nonmetal deposits, even\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3129\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary]. If a metal-bearing resource is not profitable to [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary], it is referred to as a [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] deposit. The term <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2660\"]natural resource[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is more common than\u00a0the term [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0for non-metal-bearing materials.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4624\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-934 size-medium\" style=\"font-weight: bold;background-color: transparent;text-align: inherit\" title=\"Source: Chris Johnson\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource-300x233.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram shows the small box of &quot;reserves&quot; within a larger box of &quot;resources&quot;. There is also an &quot;inferred resources&quot; box that is slightly larger than &quot;proven reserves&quot; box and an &quot;undiscovered resources&quot; box slightly larger than the resources box.\" width=\"300\" height=\"233\"><\/a> Diagram illustrating the relative abundance of proven reserves, inferred reserves, resources, and undiscovered resources. (Source: Chris Johnson)[\/caption]\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is implicit that the technology to [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] is available, economic conditions are suitable, and political, social and environmental considerations are satisfied in order to classify a\u00a0 [pb_glossary id=\"2660\"]natural resource[\/pb_glossary] deposit as [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]. \u00a0Depending on the substance, it can be [pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary] in a narrow vein or distributed over a large area as a low-concentration [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]. Some materials are [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] directly from bodies of water (e.g. sylvite for potassium; water through desalination) and the [pb_glossary id=\"2667\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] (e.g. nitrogen for fertilizers). \u00a0These differences lead to various methods of [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary], and differences in terminology depending on the certainty. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]Ore[\/pb_glossary] m<\/strong><\/span><b>ineral resource<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> is used for an indication of [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary] that is potentially extractable, and the term <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><b>[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] reserve<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> is used for a well defined (proven), profitable amount of extractable [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary].<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4625\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/McKelveyDiagram.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-935 size-large\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-1024x596.jpg\" alt=\"The chart shows reserves vs. resources\" width=\"1024\" height=\"596\"><\/a> McKelvey diagram showing different definitions for different degrees of concentration and understanding of mineral deposits.[\/caption]\n<h3><b>16.1.3. Mining Techniques<\/b><\/h3>\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] style is determined by technology, social license, and economics. It is in the best interest of the company extracting the resources to do so in a cost-effective way. Fluid resources, such as\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and gas, are extracted by drilling wells and pumping. Over the years, drilling has evolved into a complex discipline in which directional drilling can produce multiple bifurcations and curves originating from a single drill collar at the surface. Using geophysical tools like\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3087\"]seismic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0imaging, geologists can pinpoint resources and extract efficiently.\n\nSolid resources are extracted by two\u00a0principal methods of which there are many variants.\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3328\"]Surface mining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0is used to remove material from the outermost part\u00a0of the Earth.\u00a0<strong>Open pit<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0is used to target shallow, broadly disseminated resources.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4626\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"352\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bingham_Canyon_mine_2016.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4626\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Bingham_Canyon_mine_2016-1.jpg\" alt=\"The image is a large hole in a mountainside.\" width=\"352\" height=\"212\"><\/a> Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah. This open pit mine is the largest man-made removal of rock in the world.[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"3329\"]Open pit mining[\/pb_glossary] requires careful study of the [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary] body through surface mapping and drilling exploratory cores. The pit is progressively deepened through additional [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] cuts to extract the [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]. Typically, the pit\u2019s walls are as steep as can be safely managed. Once the pit is deepened, widening the top is very expensive. A steep wall is thus an engineering balance between efficient and profitable [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] (from the company's point of view) and [pb_glossary id=\"3110\"]mass wasting[\/pb_glossary] ([pb_glossary id=\"3115\"]angle of repose[\/pb_glossary] from a safety p0int of view) so that there is less waste to remove. The waste is called non-valuable rock or overburden and moving it is costly. Occasionally, [pb_glossary id=\"1199\"]landslides[\/pb_glossary] do occur, such as the very large [pb_glossary id=\"1199\"]landslide[\/pb_glossary] in the Kennecott Bingham Canyon [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary], Utah, in 2013. These events are costly and dangerous. The job of engineering geologists is to carefully monitor the mine; when company management heeds their warnings, there is ample time and action to avoid or prepare for any slide.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4627\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-937\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"A large machine is removing coal.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> A surface coal mine in Wyoming.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3330\"]Strip mining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3330\"]mountaintop mining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0are\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3328\"]surface mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0techniques that are used to [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] resources that cover large areas, especially layered resources, such as [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary]. In this method, an entire mountaintop or rock layer is removed to access the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0below. [pb_glossary id=\"3328\"]Surface mining[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s\u00a0environmental impacts are usually much greater due to the large surface footprint that\u2019s disturbed.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4628\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-938\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-300x193.jpg\" alt=\"A large truck is loading material underground.\" width=\"300\" height=\"193\"><\/a> Underground mining in Estonia of Oil Shale.[\/caption]\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3331\"]Underground mining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0is a method often used to [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] higher-[pb_glossary id=\"2938\"]grade[\/pb_glossary], more localized, or very\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0resources. For one example, geologists [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] some\u00a0underground [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0by introducing chemical agents, which [pb_glossary id=\"2815\"]dissolve[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0the target\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary].\u00a0Then, they bring the [pb_glossary id=\"2705\"]solution[\/pb_glossary] to the surface where\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2707\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] extracts the material. But more often, a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0shaft tunnel or a large network of these shafts and tunnels is dug to access the material. The decision to [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] underground or from Earth\u2019s surface is dictated by\u00a0the [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposit\u2019s concentration, depth, geometry, land-use policies, economics, surrounding rock strength, and physical access to the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]. For example, to use [pb_glossary id=\"3328\"]surface mining[\/pb_glossary] techniques for deeper deposits might require removing too much material, or the necessary method may be too dangerous or impractical, or removing the entire overburden may be too expensive, or the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0footprint would be too large. These factors may prevent geologists from [pb_glossary id=\"3328\"]surface mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0materials and cause a project to be\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0underground. The [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] method\u00a0and its feasibility depends on the commodity\u2019s price and the cost of the technology needed to remove it and deliver it to market.\u00a0Thus,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mines[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and the towns that support them come and go as the commodity price varies.\u00a0And, conversely, technological advances and market demands may reopen\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mines[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and revive ghost towns.\n<h3><b>16.1.4. Concentrating and Refining<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4629\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-939 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;Alfred\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace-300x233.jpg\" alt=\"A man is operating a large machine that looks like a blast furnace.\" width=\"300\" height=\"233\"><\/a> A phosphate smelting operation in Alabama, 1942.[\/caption]\n\nAll\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0occur mixed with less desirable components called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3332\"]gangue[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. The process of physically separating\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3332\"]gangue[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0from\u00a0ore bearing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrating[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. Separating a desired\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]element[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0from a host\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0by chemical means, including heating, is called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3334\"]smelting[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. \u00a0Finally, taking a metal such as copper and removing other trace metals such as gold or silver is done through the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3335\"]refining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> process. Typically, <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3335\"]refining[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is done one of three ways: 1. Materials can either be mechanically separated and processed based on the [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s unique physical properties, such as recovering [pb_glossary id=\"3358\"]placer[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0gold based on its high density. 2. Materials can be heated to chemically separate desired components, such as [pb_glossary id=\"3335\"]refining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0crude\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0into\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]gasoline[\/pb_glossary]. 3. Materials can be smelted, in which controlled chemical reactions unbind metals from the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0they are contained in, such as when copper is taken out of chalcopyrite (CuFeS<sub>2<\/sub>).\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]Mining[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrating[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3334\"]smelting[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3335\"]refining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0processes require enormous energy. Continual advances in metallurgy- and\u00a0mining-practice strive to develop ever more energy efficient and environmentally benign processes and practices.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"107\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4901\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-940\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 16.1 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><strong>16.2. Fossil Fuels<\/strong><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4630\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-941 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;<a\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-300x188.jpg\" alt=\"The power plant has smoke coming from it\" width=\"300\" height=\"188\"><\/a> Coal power plant in Helper, Utah.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2176\"]Fossils[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0fuels<\/strong> are extractable sources of stored energy that were created by ancient ecosystems. The [pb_glossary id=\"2660\"]natural resources[\/pb_glossary] that typically fall under this category are [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"3337\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary]. These resources were originally formed via photosynthesis by living organisms such as plants, phytoplankton, algae, and cyanobacteria. This energy is actually [pb_glossary id=\"2176\"]fossil[\/pb_glossary] solar energy, since the sun\u2019s ancient energy was converted by ancient organisms into tissues that preserved the chemical energy within the [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary]. Of course, as the energy is used, just like photosynthetic respiration that occurs today, carbon enters the [pb_glossary id=\"2667\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] as CO<sub>2<\/sub>, causing [pb_glossary id=\"1710\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] consequences (see <a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/15-global-climate-change\/\">Chapter 15<\/a>).\u00a0Today humanity uses [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0for most of the world\u2019s energy.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4631\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4631 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef-2.jpg\" alt=\"The reef has many intricacies.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> Modern coral reefs and other highly-productive shallow marine environments are thought to be the sources of most petroleum resources.[\/caption]\n\nConverting solar energy by living organisms into hydrocarbon [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary] is a complex process. As organisms die, they decompose slowly, usually due to being buried rapidly, and the chemical energy stored within the organisms\u2019 tissues is buried within surrounding geologic materials. All [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil\u00a0fuels[\/pb_glossary] contain carbon that was produced in an ancient environment. In environments rich with organic matter such as swamps, coral [pb_glossary id=\"2898\"]reefs[\/pb_glossary], and planktonic blooms, there is a higher potential for [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary] to accumulate. Indeed, there is some evidence that over geologic time, organic hydrocarbon [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary] material was highly produced globally. Lack of oxygen and moderate temperatures in the environment seem to help preserve these organic substances. Also, the heat and pressure applied to organic material after it is buried contribute to transforming it into higher quality materials, such as brown [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] to anthracite and [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary] to gas. Heat and pressure can also cause mobile materials to migrate to conditions suitable for extraction.\n<h3><b>16.2.1. Fossil Fuels<\/b><\/h3>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">OIL AND GAS<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4632\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Oil_Reserves.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-943 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves-300x136.png\" alt=\"Darker countries are higher in oil\" width=\"300\" height=\"136\"><\/a> World Oil Reserves in 2013. Scale in billions of barrels.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>P<\/strong>etroleum is principally derived from organic-rich shallow\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2883\"]marine[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0sedimentary deposits where the remains of micro-organisms like plankton accumulated in fine grained [pb_glossary id=\"2678\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"3337\"]Petroleum[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s liquid component is called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary],<\/strong>\u00a0and its gas component is called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, which is mostly made up of methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>). As rocks such as [pb_glossary id=\"2839\"]shale[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"2837\"]mudstone[\/pb_glossary], or [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary] lithify, increasing pressure and [pb_glossary id=\"2689\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] cause the [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary] and gas to be squeezed out and migrate from the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3340\"]source rock[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> to a different rock unit higher in the rock column. Similar to the discussion of good\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3166\"]aquifers[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/11-water\/\">Chapter 11<\/a>, if that rock is a [pb_glossary id=\"2834\"]sandstone[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary], or other porous and permeable rock, and involved in a suitable [pb_glossary id=\"2859\"]stratigraphic[\/pb_glossary] or structural trapping process, then that rock can act as an<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and gas<strong> [pb_glossary id=\"3341\"]reservoir[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4633\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-944 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_-300x194.png\" alt=\"The rock layers are folded, and the petroleum is pooling toward the top of the fold.\" width=\"300\" height=\"194\"><\/a> A structural or anticline trap. The red on the image represents pooling petroleum. The green layer would be a permeable rock, and the yellow would be a reservoir rock.[\/caption]\n\nA\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3342\"]trap[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a combination of a subsurface geologic structure, a porous and permeable rock, and an impervious layer that helps block [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary] and gas from moving further, which concentrates it for humans to extract later. A [pb_glossary id=\"3342\"]trap[\/pb_glossary] develops due to many different geologic situations. Examples include an [pb_glossary id=\"1457\"]anticline[\/pb_glossary] or domal structure, an impermeable salt [pb_glossary id=\"1460\"]dome[\/pb_glossary], or a [pb_glossary id=\"3065\"]fault[\/pb_glossary] bounded [pb_glossary id=\"2859\"]stratigraphic[\/pb_glossary] block, which is porous rock next to nonporous rock. The different [pb_glossary id=\"3342\"]traps[\/pb_glossary] have one thing in common: they pool fluid [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary] into a configuration in which extracting it is more likely to be profitable. [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]Oil[\/pb_glossary] or gas in [pb_glossary id=\"2857\"]strata[\/pb_glossary] outside of a [pb_glossary id=\"3342\"]trap[\/pb_glossary] renders it less viable to extract.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4634\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/TransgressionRegression.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-945 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression-300x199.png\" alt=\"Onlap is sediments moving toward the land. Offlap is moving away.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\"><\/a> The rising sea levels of transgressions create onlapping sediments, regressions create offlapping.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2893\"]Sequence stratigraphy[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a branch of geology that studies sedimentary [pb_glossary id=\"2913\"]facies[\/pb_glossary] both horizontally and vertically and is devoted to understanding how sea level changes create organic-rich shallow [pb_glossary id=\"2883\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] muds, [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]carbonates[\/pb_glossary], and sands in areas that are close to each other. For example, [pb_glossary id=\"3195\"]shoreline[\/pb_glossary] environments may have beaches, [pb_glossary id=\"2900\"]lagoons[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"2898\"]reefs[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"3197\"]nearshore[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"3196\"]offshore[\/pb_glossary] deposits, all next to each other. Beach sand, lagoonal and [pb_glossary id=\"3197\"]nearshore[\/pb_glossary] muds, and coral reef layers accumulate into [pb_glossary id=\"2678\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] that include [pb_glossary id=\"2834\"]sandstones[\/pb_glossary]\u2014good [pb_glossary id=\"3341\"]reservoir[\/pb_glossary] rocks\u2014 next to [pb_glossary id=\"2837\"]mudstones[\/pb_glossary], next to [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestones[\/pb_glossary], both of which are potential [pb_glossary id=\"3340\"]source rocks[\/pb_glossary]. As sea level either rises or falls, the shoreline\u2019s location changes, and the sand, mud, and reef locations shift with it (see the figure). This places oil and gas producing rocks, such as mudstones and limestones next to oil and gas reservoirs, such as sandstones and some limestones. Understanding how the lithology and the facies\/stratigraphic relationships interplay is very important in finding new petroleum resources. Using sequence stratigraphy as a model allows geologists to predict favorable locations of the source rock and [pb_glossary id=\"3341\"]reservoir[\/pb_glossary].\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tar Sands<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4635\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-946 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California-300x286.jpg\" alt=\"The sandstone is black with tar.\" width=\"300\" height=\"286\"><\/a> Tar sandstone from the Miocene Monterrey Formation of California.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>Conventional<\/strong>\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and gas, which is pumped from a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3341\"]reservoir[\/pb_glossary], is not the only way to obtain hydrocarbons. There are a few fuel sources known as <strong>unconventional<\/strong>\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3337\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0sources. However, they are becoming more important as conventional sources become scarce.\u00a0<strong>Tar sands<\/strong>, or [pb_glossary id=\"3343\"]oil sands[\/pb_glossary], are [pb_glossary id=\"2834\"]sandstones[\/pb_glossary] that contain [pb_glossary id=\"3337\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary] products that are highly [pb_glossary id=\"3368\"]viscous[\/pb_glossary], like tar, and thus cannot be drilled and pumped out of the ground readily like conventional [pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]. This unconventional [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary] is <strong>bitumen<\/strong>, which can be pumped as a fluid only at very low recovery rates and only when heated or mixed with solvents. So, using steam and solvent injections or directly [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] tar sands to process later are ways to extract the tar from the sands. Alberta, Canada is known to have the largest [pb_glossary id=\"3343\"]tar sand[\/pb_glossary] reserves in the world. Note: as with [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ores[\/pb_glossary], an energy resource becomes uneconomic if the total extraction and processing costs exceed the extracted material\u2019s sales revenue. Environmental costs may also contribute to a resource becoming uneconomic.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Oil Shale<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4636\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Production_of_oil_shale.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-947 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale-300x195.png\" alt=\"Oil shale has dramatically increased starting around 1945.\" width=\"300\" height=\"195\"><\/a> Global production of Oil Shale, 1880-2010.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3344\"]Oil shale[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, or\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3344\"]tight oil[\/pb_glossary], is a fine-grained\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2683\"]sedimentary rock[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0that has significant [pb_glossary id=\"3337\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0or\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary] quantities locked tightly in the [pb_glossary id=\"2678\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary].\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2839\"]Shale[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has high\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3163\"]porosity[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0but very low permeability and is a common [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"3340\"]source rock[\/pb_glossary]. To extract the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary] directly from the [pb_glossary id=\"2839\"]shale[\/pb_glossary], the material has to be\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and heated, which, like with tar sands, is expensive and typically has a negative environmental impact.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fracking<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4637\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/HydroFrac2.svg_.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-948 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_-300x175.png\" alt=\"The image shows fracking fluids cracking the rock, allowing methane to escape.\" width=\"300\" height=\"175\"><\/a> Schematic diagram of fracking.[\/caption]\n\nAnother process used to extract the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3338\"]oil[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and gas from\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2839\"]shale[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and other unconventional tight resources is called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3108\"]hydraulic fracturing[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, better known as\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3108\"]fracking[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. In this method, high-pressure water, sand grains, and added chemicals are injected and pumped underground. Under high pressure, this creates and holds open\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]fractures[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0in the rocks, which help release the hard-to-access mostly\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3339\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary] fluids. [pb_glossary id=\"3108\"]Fracking[\/pb_glossary] is more useful in tighter\u00a0sediments, especially\u00a0shale, which has a high\u00a0porosity\u00a0to store the hydrocarbons but low permeability to allow transmission of the hydrocarbons.\u00a0Fracking\u00a0has become controversial because its methods contaminate [pb_glossary id=\"3129\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and\u00a0induce [pb_glossary id=\"3087\"]seismic[\/pb_glossary] activity. This has created much controversy between public concerns, political concerns, and energy value.\n<h3><b>16.2.2. Coal<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4638\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"240\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coal_Rank_USGS.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-949 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-240x300.png\" alt=\"The chart shows many different coal rankings\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\"><\/a> USGS diagram of different coal rankings.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]Coal[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0comes from fossilized swamps, though some older\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits that predate\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2902\"]terrestrial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0plants are presumed to come from algal buildups. [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]Coal[\/pb_glossary] is chiefly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen, with minor amounts of other\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary]. As plant material is incorporated into\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2678\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary], heat and pressure cause several changes that concentrate the fixed carbon, which is the [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s combustible portion. So, the more heat and pressure that\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0undergoes, the greater is its carbon concentration and fuel value and the more desirable is the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary].\n\nThis is the general sequence of a swamp progressing through the various stages of [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2960\"]formation[\/pb_glossary] and becoming more [pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary] in carbon: Swamp =&gt; Peat =&gt; Lignite =&gt; Sub-bituminous =&gt; Bituminous =&gt; Anthracite =&gt; Graphite. As swamp materials collect on the swamp floor and are buried under accumulating materials, they first turn to peat.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4639\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Peat_49302157252.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-950\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"A lump of peat.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> Peat (also known as turf) consists of partially decayed organic matter. The Irish have long mined peat to be burned as fuel though this practice is now discouraged for environmental reasons.[\/caption]\n\nPeat itself is an economic fuel in some locations like the British Isles and Scandinavia. As [pb_glossary id=\"2682\"]lithification[\/pb_glossary] occurs, peat turns to lignite. With increasing heat and pressure, lignite turns to sub-bituminous [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], bituminous [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], and then, in a process like [pb_glossary id=\"2914\"]metamorphism[\/pb_glossary], anthracite. Anthracite is the highest [pb_glossary id=\"2914\"]metamorphic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2938\"]grade[\/pb_glossary] and most desirable [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] since it provides the highest energy output. With even more heat and pressure driving out all the [pb_glossary id=\"2606\"]volatiles[\/pb_glossary] and leaving pure carbon, anthracite can become graphite.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4640\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coal_anthracite.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4640 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;USGS\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_anthracite-1.jpg\" alt=\"It is very black and shiny.\" width=\"300\" height=\"281\"><\/a> Anthracite coal, the highest grade of coal.[\/caption]\n\nHumans have used [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] for at least 6,000 years, mainly as a fuel source. [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]Coal[\/pb_glossary] resources in Wales are often cited as a primary reason for Britain\u2019s rise, and later, for the United States\u2019 rise during the Industrial Revolution. According to the US Energy Information Administration, US [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] production has decreased due to competing energy sources\u2019 cheaper prices and due to society recognizing its negative environmental impacts, including increased very fine-grained particulate matter as an air pollutant, greenhouse gases, acid rain, and heavy metal pollution. Seen from this perspective, the [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] industry as a source of [pb_glossary id=\"2176\"]fossil[\/pb_glossary] energy is unlikely to revive.\n\nAs the world transitions away from [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary] including [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], and manufacturing seeks strong, flexible, and lighter materials than steel including carbon fiber for many applications, current research is exploring [pb_glossary id=\"2856\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] as a source of this carbon.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"108\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4902\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-952\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 16.2 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">16.3 Mineral Resources<\/span><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4641\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-953 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein-300x209.jpg\" alt=\"The yellow gold is inside white quartz.\" width=\"300\" height=\"209\"><\/a> Gold-bearing quartz vein from California.[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]Mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0resources, while principally\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary], are generally placed\u00a0in two main categories:\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]metallic[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, which contain metals, and\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3346\"]nonmetallic[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, which contain other useful materials. Most\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has been traditionally focused on\u00a0extracting [pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]metallic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]. Human society has advanced significantly because we\u2019ve developed the\u00a0knowledge and technologies to yield metal from the Earth. This knowledge has allowed humans to build the machines, buildings, and monetary systems that dominate our world today. Locating and recovering these metals has been a key facet of geologic study since its inception. Every\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]element[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0across the periodic table has specific applications in human civilization.\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]Metallic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is the source of many of these\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary].\n<h3><b>16.3.1. Types of Metallic Mineral Deposits<\/b><\/h3>\nThe various ways in which [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and their associated\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0concentrate to form\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits are too complex and numerous to fully review in this text. However, entire careers are built around them.\u00a0In the following section, we describe some of the more common deposit types along with their associated elemental concentrations and world class occurrences.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Magmatic Processes<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4642\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-954 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"The rock has several layers, with the dark layers being the ones with value.\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\"><\/a> Layered intrusion of dark chromium-bearing minerals, Bushveld Complex, South Africa[\/caption]\n\nWhen a magmatic body crystallizes and differentiates (see Chapter 4), it can cause certain [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary] to concentrate. <strong>Layered<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>intrusions<\/strong>, typically [pb_glossary id=\"1957\"]ultramafic[\/pb_glossary] to [pb_glossary id=\"1956\"]mafic[\/pb_glossary], can host deposits that contain copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, rhodium, and chromium. The Stillwater Complex in Montana is an example of economic quantities of layered [pb_glossary id=\"1956\"]mafic[\/pb_glossary] intrusion. Associated deposit types can contain chromium or titanium-vanadium. The largest magmatic deposits in the world are the chromite deposits in the Bushveld [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]Igneous[\/pb_glossary] Complex in South Africa. These rocks have an areal extent larger than the state of Utah. The chromite occurs in layers, which resemble sedimentary layers, except these layers occur within a crystallizing [pb_glossary id=\"1185\"]magma chamber[\/pb_glossary].\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4909\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Elbai\u0308te_et_mica_Bre\u0301sil_1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-4909\" src=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Elbai\u0308te_et_mica_Bre\u0301sil_1-300x199.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"The rock is mostly green and purple\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\"><\/a> This pegmatite contains lithium-rich green elbaite (a tourmaline) and purple lepidolite (a mica).[\/caption]\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWater and other\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2606\"]volatiles[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0that are not incorporated into\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0crystals when a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0crystallizes can become\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0around the crystallizing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s margins. Ions in these hot fluids are very mobile and can form exceptionally large crystals.\u00a0Once crystallized, these large crystal masses are then called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1944\"]pegmatites[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. They form from [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] fluids that are expelled from the solidifying [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] when nearly the entire [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] body has crystallized. In addition to [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] that are predominant in the main [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] mass, such as [pb_glossary id=\"1915\"]quartz[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1916\"]feldspar[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"1914\"]mica[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1944\"]pegmatite[\/pb_glossary] bodies may also contain very large crystals of unusual [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] that contain rare [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary] like beryllium, lithium, tantalum, niobium, and tin, as well as [pb_glossary id=\"1924\"]native[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary] like gold. Such [pb_glossary id=\"1944\"]pegmatites[\/pb_glossary] are [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ores[\/pb_glossary] of these metals.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4643\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"298\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/KimberlitePipe.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-955 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-298x300.jpg\" alt=\"The pipe is deep and narrow.\" width=\"298\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Schematic diagram of a kimberlite pipe.[\/caption]\n\nAn unusual magmatic process is a\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3348\"]kimberlite[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> pipe, which is a [pb_glossary id=\"1181\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1186\"]conduit[\/pb_glossary] that transports [pb_glossary id=\"1957\"]ultramafic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] from within the [pb_glossary id=\"2586\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary] to the surface. Diamonds, which are formed at great temperatures and pressures of depth, are transported by a [pb_glossary id=\"3348\"]Kimberlite[\/pb_glossary] pipe to locations where they can be [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary]. The process that created these [pb_glossary id=\"3348\"]kimberlite[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1957\"]ultramafic[\/pb_glossary] rocks is no longer common on Earth. Most known deposits are from the [pb_glossary id=\"2205\"]Archean[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2190\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary].\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Hydrothermal Processes<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4644\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"400\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Deep_sea_vent_chemistry_diagram.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4644\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Deep_sea_vent_chemistry_diagram-1.jpg\" alt=\"The diagram shows water going into the ground and coming out, with many different reactions.\" width=\"400\" height=\"233\"><\/a> The complex chemistry around mid-ocean ridges.[\/caption]\n\nFluids rising from crystallizing magmatic bodies or that are heated by the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1175\"]geothermal gradient[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0cause many geochemical reactions that form various [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits. The most active\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0process today produces\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3349\"]volcanogenic massive sulfide[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>(VMS) deposits, which form from [pb_glossary id=\"2922\"]black smoker[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary] chimney activity near [pb_glossary id=\"2630\"]mid-ocean ridges[\/pb_glossary] all over the world. They commonly contain copper, zinc, lead, gold, and silver when found at the surface. Evidence from around 7000 BC in a [pb_glossary id=\"2192\"]period[\/pb_glossary] known as the Chalcolithic shows copper was among the earliest metals smelted by humans as means of obtaining higher temperatures were developed. The largest of these VMS deposits occur in [pb_glossary id=\"2218\"]Precambrian[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2192\"]period[\/pb_glossary] rocks. The Jerome deposit in central Arizona is a good example.\n\nAnother deposit type that draws on [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary]-heated water is a\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> deposit. This is not to be confused with the [pb_glossary id=\"1942\"]porphyritic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] texture, although the name is derived from the [pb_glossary id=\"1942\"]porphyritic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2919\"]texture[\/pb_glossary] that is nearly always present in the [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] rocks associated with a [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary] deposit. Several types of [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary] deposits exist, such as [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary] copper, [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary] molybdenum, and [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary] tin. These deposits contain low-[pb_glossary id=\"2938\"]grade[\/pb_glossary] disseminated [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] closely associated with [pb_glossary id=\"1955\"]intermediate[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1954\"]felsic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1939\"]intrusive[\/pb_glossary] rocks that are present over a very large area. [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]Porphyry[\/pb_glossary] deposits are typically the largest [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mines[\/pb_glossary] on Earth. One of the largest, richest, and possibly best studied [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] in the world is Utah\u2019s Kennecott Bingham Canyon [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]Mine[\/pb_glossary]. It\u2019s an [pb_glossary id=\"3329\"]open pit mine[\/pb_glossary], which, for over 100 years, has produced several [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]elements[\/pb_glossary] including copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver. Underground [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] replacement deposits produce lead, zinc, gold, silver, and copper. In the [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s past, the open pit predominately produced copper and gold from chalcopyrite and bornite. Gold only occurs in minor quantities in the copper-bearing [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], but because the Kennecott Bingham Canyon [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]Mine[\/pb_glossary] produces on such a large scale, it is one of the largest gold [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mines[\/pb_glossary] in the US. In the future, this [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] may produce more copper and molybdenum (molybdenite) from deeper [pb_glossary id=\"3331\"]underground mines[\/pb_glossary].\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4645\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Morenci_Mine_2012.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-957 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The mine contains grey rocks, which are not enriched, and red rocks, which is where the enrichment occurs.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> The Morenci porphyry is oxidized toward its top (as seen as red rocks in the wall of the mine), creating supergene enrichment.[\/caption]\n\nMost [pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0copper deposits owe their high metal content, and hence, their economic value to [pb_glossary id=\"2676\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0processes called<strong> [pb_glossary id=\"3351\"]supergene enrichment[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> which occurs when the\u00a0deposit is uplifted, eroded, and exposed to\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2818\"]oxidation[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. This process <b>occur<\/b>r<b>ed<\/b> millions of years after the initial [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] intrusion and [pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary] expulsion ends. When the deposit\u2019s upper pyrite-rich portion is exposed to rain, the pyrite in the oxidizing zone creates an extremely acid condition that dissolves copper out of copper\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0such as chalcopyrite, and converts the chalcopyrite to iron\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1919\"]oxides[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0such as hematite or goethite. The copper [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] are carried downward in\u00a0water until they arrive at the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3129\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0table and an environment where the primary copper\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] are converted\u00a0into secondary higher-copper content\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]. Chalcopyrite (35% Cu) is converted to bornite (63% Cu), and ultimately, chalcocite (80% Cu).\u00a0Without this enriched zone, which is two to five times higher in copper content than the main deposit, most\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0copper deposits would not be economic to [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary].\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4646\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-958 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-300x255.jpg\" alt=\"Calcite is blue, augite green, and garnet brown\/orange in this rock.\" width=\"300\" height=\"255\"><\/a> Garnet-augite skarn from Italy.[\/caption]\n\nIf\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0or other calcareous sedimentary rocks are near the magmatic body, then another type of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposit called a\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3352\"]skarn[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0deposit forms. These\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2914\"]metamorphic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0rocks form as\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary]-derived, highly saline metalliferous fluids react with\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0rocks to create calcium-magnesium-[pb_glossary id=\"2709\"]silicate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0like\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2712\"]pyroxene[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2713\"]amphibole[\/pb_glossary], and garnet, as well as high-[pb_glossary id=\"2938\"]grade[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0iron, copper, zinc\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0and gold. Intrusions that are genetically related to the intrusion that made the Kennecott Bingham Canyon deposit have also produced copper-gold skarns, which were\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0by the early European settlers in Utah. When iron and\/or\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1921\"]sulfide[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits undergo [pb_glossary id=\"2914\"]metamorphism[\/pb_glossary], the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2828\"]grain\u00a0size[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0commonly increases, which makes separating the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3332\"]gangue[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0from the desired\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1921\"]sulfide[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0or\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1919\"]oxide[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0much easier.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4647\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/GoldinPyrite.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4647 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;<a\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/GoldinPyrite-1.jpg\" alt=\"The rock is red.\" width=\"300\" height=\"240\"><\/a> In this rock, a pyrite cube has dissolved (as seen with the negative \"corner\" impression in the rock), leaving behind small specks of gold.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3353\"]Sediment-hosted disseminated gold[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> deposits consist of low concentrations of microscopic gold as [pb_glossary id=\"2958\"]inclusions[\/pb_glossary] and disseminated atoms in pyrite crystals. These are formed via low-[pb_glossary id=\"2938\"]grade[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary] reactions, generally in the realm of [pb_glossary id=\"2827\"]diagenesis[\/pb_glossary], that occur in certain rock types, namely muddy [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]carbonates[\/pb_glossary] and limey [pb_glossary id=\"2837\"]mudstones[\/pb_glossary]. This [pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary] alteration is generally far removed from a [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] source, but can be found in rocks situated with a high [pb_glossary id=\"1175\"]geothermal gradient[\/pb_glossary]. The Mercur deposit in Utah\u2019s Oquirrh Mountains was this type\u2019s earliest locally [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] deposit. There, almost a million ounces of gold was recovered between 1890 and 1917. In the 1960s, a metallurgical process using cyanide was developed for these low-[pb_glossary id=\"2938\"]grade[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary] types. These deposits are also called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3353\"]Carlin-type[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits\u00a0because the disseminated deposit near Carlin, Nevada, is where the new technology was first applied and where the first definitive scientific studies were conducted. Gold was introduced into these deposits by\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0fluids that reacted with silty calcareous rocks, removing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary], creating additional permeability, and adding silica and gold-bearing pyrite in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3116\"]pore[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0space between grains. The Betze-Post\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and the Gold Quarry\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0on the Carlin Trend are two of the largest disseminated gold deposits in Nevada. Similar deposits, but not as large, have been found in China, Iran, and Macedonia.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Non-magmatic Geochemical Processes <\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4648\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-960 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;<a\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"A dark shaft runs into the mountain.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> Underground uranium mine near Moab, Utah.[\/caption]\n\nGeochemical processes that occur at or near the surface without [pb_glossary id=\"2672\"]magma[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s\u00a0aid also concentrate metals, but to a lesser degree than\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2921\"]hydrothermal[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0processes. One of the main reactions is\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3354\"]redox[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, short for reduction\/[pb_glossary id=\"2818\"]oxidation[\/pb_glossary] chemistry, which has to do with the amount of available oxygen in a [pb_glossary id=\"2664\"]system[\/pb_glossary]. Places where oxygen is plentiful, as in the [pb_glossary id=\"2667\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] today, are considered oxidizing environments, while oxygen-poor places are considered reducing environments. Uranium deposits are an example of where [pb_glossary id=\"3354\"]redox[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary] the metal. Uranium is soluble in oxidizing [pb_glossary id=\"3129\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary] environments and precipitates as uraninite when encountering reducing conditions. Many of the deposits across the Colorado Plateau, such as in \u00a0Moab, Utah, were formed by this method.\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"3354\"]Redox[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0reactions are also responsible for creating [pb_glossary id=\"2848\"]<strong>banded iron<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>formations<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary]<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>(BIFs),<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>which are interbedded layers of iron\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1919\"]oxide[\/pb_glossary]\u2014hematite and magnetite,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2849\"]chert[\/pb_glossary], and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2839\"]shale[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2858\"]beds[\/pb_glossary]. These deposits formed early in the Earth\u2019s history as the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2667\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0was becoming oxygenated. Cycles of oxygenating iron-rich waters initiated [pb_glossary id=\"2707\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] of the\u00a0iron\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2858\"]beds[\/pb_glossary]. Because BIFs are generally\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2218\"]Precambrian[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0in age, happening at the event of atmospheric oxygenation, they are only found in some of the older exposed rocks in the United States, such as in Michigan\u2019s upper peninsula and northeast Minnesota.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4649\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-961 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-300x138.png\" alt=\"The are globally distributed.\" width=\"300\" height=\"138\"><\/a> Map of Mississippi-Valley type ore deposits.[\/caption]\n\nDeep, saline, [pb_glossary id=\"3164\"]connate fluids[\/pb_glossary] (trapped in [pb_glossary id=\"3116\"]pore[\/pb_glossary] spaces) within [pb_glossary id=\"1463\"]sedimentary basins[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0may be highly metalliferous. When expelled outward and upward as [pb_glossary id=\"1461\"]basin[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2678\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] compacted, these fluids formed lead and zinc deposits in [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary] by replacing or filling open spaces, such as caves and [pb_glossary id=\"3065\"]faults[\/pb_glossary], and in [pb_glossary id=\"2834\"]sandstone[\/pb_glossary] by filling [pb_glossary id=\"3116\"]pore[\/pb_glossary] spaces. The most famous are called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3355\"]Mississippi Valley-type[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits. Also known as\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3355\"]carbonate-hosted replacement[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits, they are large deposits of galena and sphalerite lead and zinc\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ores[\/pb_glossary] that form from hot fluids ranging from 100\u00b0C to 200\u00b0C (212\u00b0F to 392\u00b0F). Although they are named for occurring along the Mississippi\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3134\"]River[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0Valley in the US, they are found worldwide.\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3356\"]Sediment-hosted copper[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits occurring in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2834\"]sandstones[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2839\"]shales[\/pb_glossary], and marls are enormous, and their contained resources are comparable to\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3350\"]porphyry[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0copper deposits. These deposits were most likely formed diagenetically by\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3129\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0fluids in highly permeable rocks. Well-known examples are the Kupferschiefer in Europe, which has an areal coverage of &gt;500,000 Km<sup>2<\/sup>, (310,685.596mi) and the Zambian Copper Belt in Africa.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4650\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bauxite_with_unweathered_rock_core._C_021.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4650 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Bauxite_with_unweathered_rock_core._C_021-1.jpg\" alt=\"The outside of the rock is tan and weathered, the inside is grey.\" width=\"300\" height=\"195\"><\/a> A sample of bauxite. Note the unweathered igneous rock in the center.[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1203\"]Soils[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits that are exposed at the surface experience deep and intense\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2676\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary], which\u00a0can form surficial deposits.\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3357\"]Bauxite[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, an aluminum [pb_glossary id=\"3325\"]ore[\/pb_glossary], is preserved in [pb_glossary id=\"2817\"]karst[\/pb_glossary] topography and laterites, which are [pb_glossary id=\"1203\"]soils[\/pb_glossary] formed in wet tropical environments. [pb_glossary id=\"1203\"]Soils[\/pb_glossary] containing aluminum concentrate [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], such as [pb_glossary id=\"1916\"]feldspar[\/pb_glossary], and ferromagnesian [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] in [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2914\"]metamorphic[\/pb_glossary] rocks, undergo [pb_glossary id=\"2812\"]chemical weathering[\/pb_glossary] processes that concentrate the metals. [pb_glossary id=\"1957\"]Ultramafic[\/pb_glossary] rocks that undergo [pb_glossary id=\"2676\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary] form nickel-rich [pb_glossary id=\"1203\"]soils[\/pb_glossary], and when the magnetite and hematite in [pb_glossary id=\"2848\"]banded iron formations[\/pb_glossary] undergo [pb_glossary id=\"2676\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary], it forms goethite, a friable [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] that is easily [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] for its iron content.\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Surficial Physical Processes <\/span><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4651\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/HeavyMineralsBeachSand.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4651 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HeavyMineralsBeachSand-1.jpg\" alt=\"The tan rock has dark streaks of minerals.\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\"><\/a> Lithified heavy mineral sand (dark layers) from a beach deposit in India.[\/caption]\n\nAt the Earth\u2019s surface, [pb_glossary id=\"3110\"]mass wasting[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and moving water can cause hydraulic\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2829\"]sorting[\/pb_glossary], which forces high-density\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] to [pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrate[\/pb_glossary]. When these\u00a0minerals\u00a0are\u00a0concentrated\u00a0in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3134\"]streams[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3134\"]rivers[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0and beaches, they are called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3358\"]placer[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0deposits, and occur in modern sands and ancient lithified rocks.\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1924\"]Native[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0gold,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1924\"]native[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0platinum,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2175\"]zircon[\/pb_glossary], ilmenite, rutile, magnetite, diamonds, and other gemstones can be found in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3358\"]placers[\/pb_glossary]. Humans have mimicked this natural process to recover gold manually by gold panning and by mechanized means such as dredging.\n<h3><b>16.3.2. Environmental Impacts of Metallic Mineral Mining<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4652\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-964 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The water in the river is bright orange.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto, Spain.[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]Metallic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s\u00a0primary impact comes from the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0itself, including disturbing the land surface, covering landscapes with tailings impoundments, and increasing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3110\"]mass wasting[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0by accelerating\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2677\"]erosion[\/pb_glossary]. In addition, many metal deposits contain pyrite, an uneconomic\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1921\"]sulfide[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary], that when\u00a0placed on waste dumps, generates\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"3359\"]acid rock drainage[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0(ARD)<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>during [pb_glossary id=\"2676\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]. In oxygenated water, [pb_glossary id=\"1921\"]sulfides[\/pb_glossary] such as pyrite react and undergo complex reactions to release metal ions and hydrogen ions, which lowers pH to highly acidic levels. [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]Mining[\/pb_glossary] and processing of [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] materials typically increase the surface area to volume ratio in the material, causing chemical reactions to occur even faster than would occur naturally. If not managed properly, these reactions lead to acidic [pb_glossary id=\"3134\"]streams[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"3129\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary] plumes that carry [pb_glossary id=\"2815\"]dissolved[\/pb_glossary] toxic metals. In [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mines[\/pb_glossary] where [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary] is a waste rock or where [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] like [pb_glossary id=\"1918\"]calcite[\/pb_glossary] or dolomite are present, their acid neutralizing potential helps reduce [pb_glossary id=\"3359\"]acid rock drainage[\/pb_glossary]. Although this is a natural process too, it is very important to isolate [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mine[\/pb_glossary] dumps and tailings from oxygenated water, both to prevent the [pb_glossary id=\"1921\"]sulfides[\/pb_glossary] from dissolving and subsequently percolating the [pb_glossary id=\"1922\"]sulfate[\/pb_glossary]-rich water into waterways. Industry has taken great strides to prevent contamination in recent decades, but earlier [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mining[\/pb_glossary] projects are still causing problems with local ecosystems.\n<h3><strong>16.3.3. Nonmetallic Mineral\u00a0Deposits<\/strong><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4653\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"225\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/CarraraMarblequarry.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-965 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"The image shows a hillside with blocks of marble removed.\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Carrara marble quarry in Italy, source to famous sculptures like Michelangelo's David.[\/caption]\n\nWhile receiving much less attention, [pb_glossary id=\"3346\"]nonmetallic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] resources, also known as industrial [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], are just as vital to ancient and modern society as [pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]metallic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]. The most basic is building stone. [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]Limestone[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"2847\"]travertine[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1962\"]granite[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"2926\"]slate[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"2936\"]marble[\/pb_glossary] are common building stones and have been quarried for centuries. Even today, building stones from [pb_glossary id=\"2926\"]slate[\/pb_glossary] roof tiles to [pb_glossary id=\"1962\"]granite[\/pb_glossary] countertops are very popular. Especially pure [pb_glossary id=\"2851\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary] is ground up, processed, and reformed as plaster, cement, and concrete. Some [pb_glossary id=\"3346\"]nonmetallic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] resources are not [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] specific; nearly any rock or [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] can be used. This is generally called aggregate, which is used in concrete, roads, and foundations. Gravel is one of the more common aggregates.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Evaporites<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4654\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bonneville_Salt_Flats_Utah.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4654 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Bonneville_Salt_Flats_Utah-1.jpg\" alt=\"The ground is white and flat for a long distance.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Salt-covered plain known as the Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah.[\/caption]\n\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2842\"]Evaporite[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits\u00a0form in restricted basins where water evaporates faster than it [pb_glossary id=\"3177\"]recharges[\/pb_glossary], such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea, which borders Israel and Jordan. As the waters evaporate, soluble\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"3333\"]concentrated[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and become supersaturated, at which point they\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2707\"]precipitate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0from the now highly-saline waters. If these conditions persist for long stretches, thick rock salt, rock\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2843\"]gypsum[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0and other\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits accumulate (see Chapter 5).\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4655\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Hanksite.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-967 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The mineral is hexagonal and clear.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Hanksite, Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"2842\"]Evaporite[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], such as [pb_glossary id=\"2844\"]halite[\/pb_glossary], are used in our food as common table salt. Salt was a vitally important food preservative and economic resource before refrigeration was developed. While still used in food, [pb_glossary id=\"2844\"]halite[\/pb_glossary] is now mainly [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] as a chemical agent, water softener, or road de-icer. [pb_glossary id=\"2843\"]Gypsum[\/pb_glossary] is a common [pb_glossary id=\"3346\"]nonmetallic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] used as a building material; it is the main component in dry wall. It is also used as a fertilizer. Other [pb_glossary id=\"2842\"]evaporites[\/pb_glossary] include sylvite\u2014potassium chloride, and bischofite\u2014magnesium chloride, both of which are used in agriculture, medicine, food processing, and other applications. Potash, a group of highly soluble potassium-bearing [pb_glossary id=\"2842\"]evaporite[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], is used as a fertilizer. In hyper-arid locations, even more rare and complex [pb_glossary id=\"2842\"]evaporites[\/pb_glossary], like borax, trona, ulexite, and hanksite are [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary]. They can be found in places such as Searles Dry Lake and Death Valley, California, and in the Green [pb_glossary id=\"3134\"]River[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"2960\"]Formation[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s ancient [pb_glossary id=\"2842\"]evaporite[\/pb_glossary] deposits in Utah and Wyoming.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Phosphorus<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Apatite-CaF-280343.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4656 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;Rob\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Apatite-CaF-280343-1.jpg\" alt=\"The crystal is hexagonal and light green.\" width=\"300\" height=\"267\"><\/a> Apatite from Mexico.[\/caption]\n\nPhosphorus is an essential [pb_glossary id=\"2700\"]element[\/pb_glossary] that occurs in the [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] apatite, which is found in trace amounts in common [pb_glossary id=\"2675\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] rocks. Phosphorite rock, which is formed in sedimentary environments in the ocean, contains abundant apatite and is [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] to make fertilizer. Without phosphorus, life as we know it is not possible. Phosphorous is an important component of bone and DNA. Bone [pb_glossary id=\"1949\"]ash[\/pb_glossary] and guano are natural sources of phosphorus.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"109\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4903\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-969\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 16.3 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h1>Summary<\/h1>\nEnergy and [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] resources are vital to modern society, and it is the role of the geologist to locate these resources for human benefit. As environmental concerns have become more prominent, the value of the geologist has not decreased, as they are still vital in locating the deposits and identifying the least [pb_glossary id=\"1939\"]intrusive[\/pb_glossary] methods of extraction.\n\nEnergy resources are general grouped as being [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary]. Geologists can aid in locating the best places to exploit [pb_glossary id=\"2662\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] resources (e.g. locating a dam), but are commonly tasked with finding [pb_glossary id=\"2661\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"3336\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]Mineral[\/pb_glossary] resources are also grouped in two categories: [pb_glossary id=\"3345\"]metallic[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"3346\"]nonmetallic[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"2687\"]Minerals[\/pb_glossary] have a wide variety of processes that concentrate them to economic levels, and are usually [pb_glossary id=\"3324\"]mined[\/pb_glossary] via surface or underground methods.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this Chapter.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"110\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4904\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-970\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 16 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Ague, Jay James, and George H. Brimhall. 1989. \u201cGeochemical Modeling of Steady State Fluid Flow and Chemical Reaction during Supergene Enrichment of Porphyry Copper Deposits.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 84 (3). economicgeology.org: 506\u201328.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Arndt, N. T. 1994. \u201cChapter 1 Archean Komatiites.\u201d In <em>Developments in Precambrian Geology<\/em>, edited by K.C. Condie, 11:11\u201344. Elsevier.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">B\u00e1rdossy, Gy\u00f6rgy, and Gerardus Jacobus Johannes Aleva. 1990. <em>Lateritic Bauxites<\/em>. Vol. 27. Elsevier Science Ltd.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Barrie, C. T. 1999. \u201cVolcanic-Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits: Processes and Examples in Modern and Ancient Settings.\u201d Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 8. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Michael_Perfit\/publication\/241276560_Geologic_petrologic_and_geochemical_relationships_between_magmatism_and_massive_sulfide_mineralization_along_the_eastern_Galapagos_Spreading_Center\/links\/02e7e51c8707bbfe9c000000.pdf.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Barrie, L. A., and R. M. Hoff. 1984. \u201cThe Oxidation Rate and Residence Time of Sulphur Dioxide in the Arctic Atmosphere.\u201d <em>Atmospheric Environment<\/em> 18 (12). Elsevier: 2711\u201322.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Bauquis, Pierre-Ren\u00e9. 1998. \u201cWhat Future for Extra Heavy Oil and Bitumen: The Orinoco Case.\u201d In <em>Paper Presented by TOTAL at the World Energy Congress<\/em>, 13:18.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Belloc, H. 1913. <em>The Servile State<\/em>. T.N. Foulis.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Blander, M., S. Sinha, A. Pelton, and G. Eriksson. 2011. \u201cCalculations of the Influence of Additives on Coal Combustion Deposits.\u201d <em>Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois<\/em>. enersol.pk, 315.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Boudreau, Alan E. 2016. \u201cThe Stillwater Complex, Montana--Overview and the Significance of Volatiles.\u201d <em>Mineralogical Magazine<\/em> 80 (4). Mineralogical Society: 585\u2013637.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Bromfield, C. S., A. J. Erickson, M. A. Haddadin, and H. H. Mehnert. 1977. \u201cPotassium-Argon Ages of Intrusion, Extrusion, and Associated Ore Deposits, Park City Mining District, Utah.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 72 (5). economicgeology.org: 837\u201348.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Brown, Valerie J. 2007. \u201cIndustry Issues: Putting the Heat on Gas.\u201d Environmental Health Perspectives 115 (2). ncbi.nlm.nih.gov: A76.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Cabri, Louis J., Donald C. Harris, and Thorolf W. Weiser. 1996. \u201cMineralogy and Distribution of Platinum-Group Mineral (PGM) Placer Deposits of the World.\u201d <em>Exploration and Mining Geology<\/em> 2 (5). infona.pl: 73\u2013167.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Crutzen, Paul J., and Jos Lelieveld. 2001. \u201cHuman Impacts on Atmospheric Chemistry.\u201d <em>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences<\/em> 29 (1). Annual Reviews 4139 El Camino Way, PO Box 10139, Palo Alto, CA 94303-0139, USA: 17\u201345.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Delaney, M. L. 1998. \u201cPhosphorus Accumulation in Marine Sediments and the Oceanic Phosphorus Cycle.\u201d <em>Global Biogeochemical Cycles<\/em> 12 (4). Wiley Online Library: 563\u201372.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Demaison, G. J., and G. T. Moore. 1980. \u201cAnoxic Environments and Oil Source Bed Genesis.\u201d Organic Geochemistry 2 (1). Elsevier: 9\u201331.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Dott, Robert H., and Merrill J. Reynolds. 1969. \u201cSourcebook for Petroleum Geology.\u201d American Association of Petroleum Geologists Tulsa, Okla. http:\/\/archives.datapages.com\/data\/specpubs\/methodo1\/data\/a072\/a072\/0001\/0000\/vi.htm.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Duffield, Wendell A. 2005. \u201cVolcanoes, Geothermal Energy, and the Environment.\u201d <em>Volcanoes and the Environment<\/em>. Cambridge University Press, 304.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Einaudi, Marco T., and Donald M. Burt. 1982. \u201cIntroduction; Terminology, Classification, and Composition of Skarn Deposits.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 77 (4). economicgeology.org: 745\u201354.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Gandossi, Luca. 2013. \u201cAn Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing and Other Formation Stimulation Technologies for Shale Gas Production.\u201d <em>Eur. Commisison Jt. Res. Cent. Tech. Reports<\/em>. skalunudujos.lt. http:\/\/skalunudujos.lt\/wp-content\/uploads\/an-overview-of-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-stimulation-technologies.pdf.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Gordon, Mackenzie, Jr, Joshua I. Tracey Jr, and Miller W. Ellis. 1958. \u201cGeology of the Arkansas Bauxite Region.\u201d pubs.er.usgs.gov. https:\/\/pubs.er.usgs.gov\/publication\/pp299.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Gordon, W. Anthony. 1975. \u201cDistribution by Latitude of Phanerozoic Evaporite Deposits.\u201d <em>The Journal of Geology<\/em> 83 (6). journals.uchicago.edu: 671\u201384.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Haber, Fritz. 2002. \u201cThe Synthesis of Ammonia from Its Elements Nobel Lecture, June 2, 1920.\u201d <em>Resonance<\/em> 7 (9). Springer India: 86\u201394.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hawley, Charles Caldwell. 2014. <em>A Kennecott Story: Three Mines, Four Men, and One Hundred Years, 1887-1997<\/em>. University of Utah Press.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hirsch, Robert L., Roger Bezdek, and Robert Wendling. 2006. \u201cPeaking of World Oil Production and Its Mitigation.\u201d <em>AIChE Journal. American Institute of Chemical Engineers<\/em> 52 (1). Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company: 2\u20138.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hitzman, M., R. Kirkham, D. Broughton, J. Thorson, and D. Selley. 2005. \u201cThe Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Ore System.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 100th . eprints.utas.edu.au. http:\/\/eprints.utas.edu.au\/705\/.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hofstra, Albert H., and Jean S. Cline. 2000. \u201cCharacteristics and Models for Carlin-Type Gold Deposits.\u201d <em>Reviews in Economic Geology<\/em> 13. Society of Economic Geologists: 163\u2013220.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">James, L. P. 1979. <em>Geology, Ore Deposits, and History of the Big Cottonwood Mining District, Salt Lake County, Utah<\/em>. Bulletin (Utah Geological and Mineral Survey). Utah Geological and Mineral Survey, Utah Department of Natural Resources.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Kim, Won-Young. 2013. \u201cInduced Seismicity Associated with Fluid Injection into a Deep Well in Youngstown, Ohio.\u201d <em>Journal of Geophysical Research, [Solid Earth]<\/em> 118 (7). Wiley Online Library: 3506\u201318.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Klein, Cornelis. 2005. \u201cSome Precambrian Banded Iron-Formations (BIFs) from around the World: Their Age, Geologic Setting, Mineralogy, Metamorphism, Geochemistry, and Origins.\u201d <em>The American Mineralogist<\/em> 90 (10). Mineralogical Society of America: 1473\u201399.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Laylin, James K. 1993. <em>Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901-1992<\/em>. Chemical Heritage Foundation.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Leach, D. L., and D. F. Sangster. 1993. \u201cMississippi Valley-Type Lead-Zinc Deposits.\u201d <em>Mineral Deposit Modeling: Geological<\/em>. researchgate.net. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Elisabeth_Rowan\/publication\/252527999_Genetic_link_between_Ouachita_foldbelt_tectonism_and_the_Mississippi_Valley-type_Lead-zinc_deposits_of_the_Ozarks\/links\/00b7d53c97ac2d6fe7000000.pdf.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Lehmann, Bernd. 2008. \u201cUranium Ore Deposits.\u201d <em>Rev. Econ. Geol. AMS Online 2008<\/em>. kenanaonline.com: 16\u201326.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">London, David, and Daniel J. Kontak. 2012. \u201cGranitic Pegmatites: Scientific Wonders and Economic Bonanzas.\u201d <em>Elements<\/em> 8 (4). GeoScienceWorld: 257\u201361.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Mancuso, Joseph J., and Ronald E. Seavoy. 1981. \u201cPrecambrian Coal or Anthraxolite; a Source for Graphite in High-Grade Schists and Gneisses.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 76 (4). economicgeology.org: 951\u201354.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">McKenzie, Hermione, and Barrington Moore. 1970. \u201cSocial Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy.\u201d JSTOR. http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/27856441.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Needham, Joseph, Ling Wang, and Gwei Djen Lu. 1963. <em>Science and Civilisation in China<\/em>. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press Cambridge.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Nuss, Philip, and Matthew J. Eckelman. 2014. \u201cLife Cycle Assessment of Metals: A Scientific Synthesis.\u201d <em>PloS One<\/em> 9 (7). journals.plos.org: e101298.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Orton, E. 1889. <em>The Trenton Limestone as a Source of Petroleum and Inflammable Gas in Ohio and Indiana<\/em>. U.S. Government Printing Office.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Palmer, M. A., E. S. Bernhardt, W. H. Schlesinger, K. N. Eshleman, E. Foufoula-Georgiou, M. S. Hendryx, A. D. Lemly, et al. 2010. \u201cScience and Regulation. Mountaintop<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Mining Consequences.\u201d <em>Science<\/em> 327 (5962). science.sciencemag.org: 148\u201349.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Pratt, Wallace Everette. 1942. <em>Oil in the Earth<\/em>. University of Kansas Press.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Qu\u00e9r\u00e9, C. Le, Robert Joseph Andres, T. Boden, T. Conway, R. A. Houghton, Joanna I. House, Gregg Marland, et al. 2013. \u201cThe Global Carbon Budget 1959--2011.\u201d <em>Earth System Science Data<\/em> 5 (1). Copernicus GmbH: 165\u201385.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Richards, J. P. 2003. \u201cTectono-Magmatic Precursors for Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) Deposit Formation.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 98 (8). economicgeology.org: 1515\u201333.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Rui-Zhong, Hu, Su Wen-Chao, Bi Xian-Wu, Tu Guang-Zhi, and Albert H. Hofstra. 2002. \u201cGeology and Geochemistry of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in China.\u201d <em>Mineralium Deposita<\/em> 37 (3-4). Springer-Verlag: 378\u201392.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Schr\u00f6der, K-P, and Robert Connon Smith. 2008. \u201cDistant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited.\u201d <em>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society<\/em> 386 (1). mnras.oxfordjournals.org: 155\u201363.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Semaw, Sileshi, Michael J. Rogers, Jay Quade, Paul R. Renne, Robert F. Butler, Manuel Dominguez-Rodrigo, Dietrich Stout, William S. Hart, Travis Pickering, and Scott W. Simpson. 2003. \u201c2.6-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools and Associated Bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia.\u201d <em>Journal of Human Evolution<\/em> 45 (2). Academic Press: 169\u201377.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Tappan, Helen, and Alfred R. Loeblich. 1970. \u201cGeobiologic Implications of Fossil Phytoplankton Evolution and Time-Space Distribution.\u201d <em>Geological Society of America Special Papers<\/em> 127 (January). specialpapers.gsapubs.org: 247\u2013340.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Taylor, E. L., T. N. Taylor, and M. Krings. 2009. <em>Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants<\/em>. Elsevier Science.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Tissot, B. 1979. \u201cEffects on Prolific Petroleum Source Rocks and Major Coal Deposits Caused by Sea-Level Changes.\u201d <em>Nature<\/em> 277. adsabs.harvard.edu: 463\u201365.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Vail, P. R., R. M. Mitchum Jr, S. Thompson III, R. G. Todd, J. B. Sangree, J. M. Widmier, J. N. Bubb, and W. G. Hatelid. 1977. \u201cSeismic Stratigraphy and Global Sea Level Changes.\u201d <em>Seismic Stratigraphy-Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration, Edited by Payton, CE, Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir<\/em> 26: 49\u2013212.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Vogel, J. C. 1970. \u201cGroningen Radiocarbon Dates IX.\u201d <em>Radiocarbon<\/em> 12 (2). journals.uair.arizona.edu: 444\u201371.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Willemse, J. 1969. \u201cThe Geology of the Bushveld Igneous Complex, the Largest Repository of Magmatic Ore Deposits in the World.\u201d <em>Economic Geology Monograph<\/em> 4: 1\u201322.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Wrigley, E. A. 1990. <em>Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England. Ellen McArthur Lectures<\/em> ; 1987. Cambridge University Press.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Youngquist, Walter. 1998. \u201cShale Oil--The Elusive Energy.\u201d <em>Hubbert Center Newsletter<\/em> 4.<\/li>\n<\/ol>","rendered":"<figure id=\"attachment_4617\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4617\" style=\"width: 768px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-928 size-full\" title=\"&quot;I,\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum.jpg\" alt=\"The nugget has cube shapes.\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum-65x87.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2022\/02\/Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum-350x467.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4617\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Latrobe Gold Nugget, as seen on display in the London Natural History Museum, is 717 grams and displays the rare cubic form of native gold. Most gold, even larger nuggets, grow in confined spaces where the euhedral nature of the mineral is not seen.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>16 Energy and Mineral Resources<\/h1>\n<p><b>KEY CONCEPTS<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe how a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a>\u00a0resource is different from a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a>\u00a0resource.<\/li>\n<li>Compare the pros and cons of extracting and using <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a> and conventional and unconventional <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3337\">petroleum<\/a> sources.<\/li>\n<li>Describe how <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">metallic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> are formed\u00a0and extracted.<\/li>\n<li>Understand how society uses\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3346\">nonmetallic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0resources.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4618\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4618\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.0_Stone-Tool.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-929 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.0_Stone-Tool-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The rock has a smooth side and a sharp side.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.0_Stone-Tool-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.0_Stone-Tool-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.0_Stone-Tool-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.0_Stone-Tool.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4618\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A Mode 1 Oldowan tool used for chopping<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This text has previously discussed geology\u2019s pioneers, such as scientists James Hutton and Charles Lyell, but the first real \u201cgeologists\u201d were the hominids who picked up stones and began the stone age. Maybe stones were first used as curiosity pieces, maybe as weapons, but ultimately, they were used as tools. This was the Paleolithic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2192\">Period<\/a>, the beginning of geologic study, and it dates back 2.6 million years to east Africa.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times, geologic knowledge is important for locating economically valuable materials for society\u2019s use. In fact, all things we use come from only three sources: they are farmed, hunted or fished, or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a>. At the turn of the twentieth century, speculation was rampant that food supplies would not keep pace with world demand, suggesting the need to develop artificial fertilizers. Sources of fertilizer ingredients are: nitrogen is processed from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2667\">atmosphere<\/a>, using the Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen; potassium comes from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2666\">hydrosphere<\/a>, such as lakes or ocean evaporation; and phosphorus is <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2590\">lithosphere<\/a>, such as minerals like apatite from phosphorite rock, which is found in Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, Utah, and around the world. \u00a0Thus, without <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> and processing of natural materials, modern civilization would not exist. Indeed, geologists are essential in this process.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>16.1 Mining<\/strong><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4619\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4619\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-930 size-large\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-1024x383.png\" alt=\"The map shows many different materials that are mined across the world.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"383\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-1024x383.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-300x112.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-768x287.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-1536x574.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-65x24.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-225x84.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1-350x131.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png 1672w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4619\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of world mining areas.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">Mining<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is defined as extracting valuable materials from the Earth for society\u2019s use. Usually, these include solid materials such as gold, iron,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>, diamond, sand, and gravel, but materials can also include fluid resources such as\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a>. Modern\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0has a long relationship with modern society. The oldest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> dates back 40,000 years to the Lion Cavern in Swaziland where there is evidence of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a>\u00a0digging\u00a0 into the Earth for hematite, an important iron <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a> used as red dye. Resources extracted by\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0are generally considered to be\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.1.1. Renewable vs. nonrenewable resources<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Resources generally come in two major categories:\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">Renewable<\/a> resources can be reused over and over or their availability replicated over a short human life span; <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a> resources cannot.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4621\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4621\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-931 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The dam has a large lake behind it\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-350x234.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4621\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hoover Dam provides hydroelectric energy and stores water for southern Nevada.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">Renewable<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0resources<\/strong> are materials present in our environment that can be exploited and replenished. Some common <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> energy sources are linked with green energy sources because they are associated with relatively small or easily remediated environmental impact. For example, solar energy comes from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2198\">fusion<\/a> within the Sun, which radiates electromagnetic energy. This energy reaches the Earth constantly and consistently and should continue to do so for about five billion more years. Wind energy, also related to solar energy, is maybe the oldest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> energy and is used to sail ships and power windmills. Both solar and wind-generated energy are variable on Earth\u2019s surface. These limitations are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3081\">offset<\/a> because we can use energy storing devices, such as batteries or electricity exchanges between producing sites. The Earth\u2019s heat, known as geothermal energy, can be viable anywhere that geologists drill deeply enough. In practice, geothermal energy is more useful where heat flow is great, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1181\">volcanic<\/a> zones or regions with a thinner <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2580\">crust<\/a>. Hydroelectric dams provide energy by allowing water to fall through the dam under gravity, which activates turbines that produce the energy. Ocean tides are also a reliable energy source. All of these <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> resources provide energy that powers society. Other <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> resources are plant and animal matter, which are used for food, clothing, and other necessities, but are being researched as possible energy sources.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4622\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4622\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Rough_diamond.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-932 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond-300x226.jpg\" alt=\"The diamond is clear and pyramidal.\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond-300x226.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rough_diamond.jpg 360w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4622\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Natural, octahedral shape of diamond.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">Nonrenewable<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0resources<\/strong> cannot be replenished at a sustainable rate. They are finite within human time frames. Many <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a> resources come from planetary, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2576\">tectonic<\/a>, or long-term biologic processes and include materials such as gold, lead, copper, diamonds, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2936\">marble<\/a>, sand, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>. Most <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a> resources include specific <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a> listed on the periodic table; some are compounds of those <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a>. For example, if society needs iron (Fe) sources, then an exploration geologist will search for iron-rich deposits that can be economically extracted. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">Nonrenewable<\/a> resources may be abandoned when other materials become cheaper or serve a better purpose. For example, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> is abundantly available in England and other nations, but because <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a> are available at a lower cost and lower environmental impact, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> use has decreased. Economic competition among <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a> resources is shifting use away from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> in many developed countries.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.1.2. Ore<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4623\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4623\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/MichiganBIF.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-933 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-300x206.jpg\" alt=\"The rock shows red and brown layering.\" width=\"300\" height=\"206\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-300x206.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-1024x704.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-768x528.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-1536x1057.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-65x45.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-225x155.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF-350x241.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MichiganBIF.jpg 1599w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4623\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Banded-iron formations are an important ore of iron (Fe).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Earth\u2019s materials include the\u00a0periodic table <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a>. However, it is rare that\u00a0these <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a> are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a>\u00a0to the point where it is profitable to extract and process the material into usable products. Any place where a valuable material is\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a>\u00a0is a geologic and geochemical\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1719\">anomaly<\/a>. A body of material from which one or more valuable substances can be\u00a0mined\u00a0at a profit, is called an\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0deposit. Typically, the term\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0is used for only metal-bearing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>, but it can be applied to valuable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a>\u00a0resource concentrations such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a>, building stones, and other nonmetal deposits, even\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3129\">groundwater<\/a>. If a metal-bearing resource is not profitable to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a>, it is referred to as a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> deposit. The term <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2660\">natural resource<\/a><\/strong> is more common than\u00a0the term <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0for non-metal-bearing materials.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4624\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4624\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-934 size-medium\" style=\"font-weight: bold;background-color: transparent;text-align: inherit\" title=\"Source: Chris Johnson\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource-300x233.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram shows the small box of &quot;reserves&quot; within a larger box of &quot;resources&quot;. There is also an &quot;inferred resources&quot; box that is slightly larger than &quot;proven reserves&quot; box and an &quot;undiscovered resources&quot; box slightly larger than the resources box.\" width=\"300\" height=\"233\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource-300x233.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource-65x51.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource-225x175.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource-350x272.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16-Reserve-vs-Resource.jpg 369w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4624\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diagram illustrating the relative abundance of proven reserves, inferred reserves, resources, and undiscovered resources. (Source: Chris Johnson)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is implicit that the technology to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> is available, economic conditions are suitable, and political, social and environmental considerations are satisfied in order to classify a\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2660\">natural resource<\/a> deposit as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>. \u00a0Depending on the substance, it can be <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a> in a narrow vein or distributed over a large area as a low-concentration <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>. Some materials are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> directly from bodies of water (e.g. sylvite for potassium; water through desalination) and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2667\">atmosphere<\/a> (e.g. nitrogen for fertilizers). \u00a0These differences lead to various methods of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>, and differences in terminology depending on the certainty. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">Ore<\/a> m<\/strong><\/span><b>ineral resource<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> is used for an indication of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a> that is potentially extractable, and the term <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> reserve<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> is used for a well defined (proven), profitable amount of extractable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4625\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4625\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/McKelveyDiagram.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-935 size-large\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-1024x596.jpg\" alt=\"The chart shows reserves vs. resources\" width=\"1024\" height=\"596\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-1024x596.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-300x174.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-768x447.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-1536x893.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-65x38.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-225x131.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram-350x204.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/McKelveyDiagram.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4625\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">McKelvey diagram showing different definitions for different degrees of concentration and understanding of mineral deposits.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>16.1.3. Mining Techniques<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> style is determined by technology, social license, and economics. It is in the best interest of the company extracting the resources to do so in a cost-effective way. Fluid resources, such as\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>\u00a0and gas, are extracted by drilling wells and pumping. Over the years, drilling has evolved into a complex discipline in which directional drilling can produce multiple bifurcations and curves originating from a single drill collar at the surface. Using geophysical tools like\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3087\">seismic<\/a>\u00a0imaging, geologists can pinpoint resources and extract efficiently.<\/p>\n<p>Solid resources are extracted by two\u00a0principal methods of which there are many variants.\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3328\">Surface mining<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is used to remove material from the outermost part\u00a0of the Earth.\u00a0<strong>Open pit<\/strong>\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is used to target shallow, broadly disseminated resources.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4626\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4626\" style=\"width: 352px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bingham_Canyon_mine_2016.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4626\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Bingham_Canyon_mine_2016-1.jpg\" alt=\"The image is a large hole in a mountainside.\" width=\"352\" height=\"212\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4626\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah. This open pit mine is the largest man-made removal of rock in the world.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3329\">Open pit mining<\/a> requires careful study of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a> body through surface mapping and drilling exploratory cores. The pit is progressively deepened through additional <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> cuts to extract the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>. Typically, the pit\u2019s walls are as steep as can be safely managed. Once the pit is deepened, widening the top is very expensive. A steep wall is thus an engineering balance between efficient and profitable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> (from the company&#8217;s point of view) and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3110\">mass wasting<\/a> (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3115\">angle of repose<\/a> from a safety p0int of view) so that there is less waste to remove. The waste is called non-valuable rock or overburden and moving it is costly. Occasionally, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1199\">landslides<\/a> do occur, such as the very large <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1199\">landslide<\/a> in the Kennecott Bingham Canyon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a>, Utah, in 2013. These events are costly and dangerous. The job of engineering geologists is to carefully monitor the mine; when company management heeds their warnings, there is ample time and action to avoid or prepare for any slide.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4627\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4627\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-937\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"A large machine is removing coal.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming-350x233.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg 600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4627\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A surface coal mine in Wyoming.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3330\">Strip mining<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3330\">mountaintop mining<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3328\">surface mining<\/a>\u00a0techniques that are used to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> resources that cover large areas, especially layered resources, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>. In this method, an entire mountaintop or rock layer is removed to access the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0below. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3328\">Surface mining<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0environmental impacts are usually much greater due to the large surface footprint that\u2019s disturbed.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4628\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4628\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-938\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-300x193.jpg\" alt=\"A large truck is loading material underground.\" width=\"300\" height=\"193\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-300x193.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-1024x658.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-768x494.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-1536x987.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-65x42.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-225x145.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia-350x225.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/UndergroundOilShaleEstonia.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4628\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Underground mining in Estonia of Oil Shale.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3331\">Underground mining<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is a method often used to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> higher-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2938\">grade<\/a>, more localized, or very\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a>\u00a0resources. For one example, geologists <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> some\u00a0underground <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0by introducing chemical agents, which <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2815\">dissolve<\/a>\u00a0the target\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>.\u00a0Then, they bring the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2705\">solution<\/a> to the surface where\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2707\">precipitation<\/a> extracts the material. But more often, a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0shaft tunnel or a large network of these shafts and tunnels is dug to access the material. The decision to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> underground or from Earth\u2019s surface is dictated by\u00a0the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0deposit\u2019s concentration, depth, geometry, land-use policies, economics, surrounding rock strength, and physical access to the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>. For example, to use <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3328\">surface mining<\/a> techniques for deeper deposits might require removing too much material, or the necessary method may be too dangerous or impractical, or removing the entire overburden may be too expensive, or the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0footprint would be too large. These factors may prevent geologists from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3328\">surface mining<\/a>\u00a0materials and cause a project to be\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a>\u00a0underground. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> method\u00a0and its feasibility depends on the commodity\u2019s price and the cost of the technology needed to remove it and deliver it to market.\u00a0Thus,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mines<\/a>\u00a0and the towns that support them come and go as the commodity price varies.\u00a0And, conversely, technological advances and market demands may reopen\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mines<\/a>\u00a0and revive ghost towns.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.1.4. Concentrating and Refining<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4629\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4629\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-939 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;Alfred\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace-300x233.jpg\" alt=\"A man is operating a large machine that looks like a blast furnace.\" width=\"300\" height=\"233\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace-300x233.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace-65x50.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace-225x174.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace-350x271.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_phosphate_smelting_furnace.jpg 619w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4629\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A phosphate smelting operation in Alabama, 1942.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>All\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0occur mixed with less desirable components called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3332\">gangue<\/a><\/strong>. The process of physically separating\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3332\">gangue<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0from\u00a0ore bearing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0is called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrating<\/a><\/strong>. Separating a desired\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">element<\/a>\u00a0from a host\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0by chemical means, including heating, is called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3334\">smelting<\/a><\/strong>. \u00a0Finally, taking a metal such as copper and removing other trace metals such as gold or silver is done through the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3335\">refining<\/a><\/strong> process. Typically, <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3335\">refining<\/a><\/strong> is done one of three ways: 1. Materials can either be mechanically separated and processed based on the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u2019s unique physical properties, such as recovering <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3358\">placer<\/a>\u00a0gold based on its high density. 2. Materials can be heated to chemically separate desired components, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3335\">refining<\/a>\u00a0crude\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>\u00a0into\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">gasoline<\/a>. 3. Materials can be smelted, in which controlled chemical reactions unbind metals from the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0they are contained in, such as when copper is taken out of chalcopyrite (CuFeS<sub>2<\/sub>).\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">Mining<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrating<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3334\">smelting<\/a>,\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3335\">refining<\/a>\u00a0processes require enormous energy. Continual advances in metallurgy- and\u00a0mining-practice strive to develop ever more energy efficient and environmentally benign processes and practices.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-107\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-107\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"107\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"16.1 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4901\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4901\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-940\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4901\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 16.1 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><strong>16.2. Fossil Fuels<\/strong><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4630\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4630\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-941 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;&lt;a\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-300x188.jpg\" alt=\"The power plant has smoke coming from it\" width=\"300\" height=\"188\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-300x188.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-65x41.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-225x141.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-350x220.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4630\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Coal power plant in Helper, Utah.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2176\">Fossils<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0fuels<\/strong> are extractable sources of stored energy that were created by ancient ecosystems. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2660\">natural resources<\/a> that typically fall under this category are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3337\">petroleum<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a>. These resources were originally formed via photosynthesis by living organisms such as plants, phytoplankton, algae, and cyanobacteria. This energy is actually <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2176\">fossil<\/a> solar energy, since the sun\u2019s ancient energy was converted by ancient organisms into tissues that preserved the chemical energy within the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuel<\/a>. Of course, as the energy is used, just like photosynthetic respiration that occurs today, carbon enters the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2667\">atmosphere<\/a> as CO<sub>2<\/sub>, causing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1710\">climate<\/a> consequences (see <a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/15-global-climate-change\/\">Chapter 15<\/a>).\u00a0Today humanity uses <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a>\u00a0for most of the world\u2019s energy.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4631\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4631\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4631 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef-2.jpg\" alt=\"The reef has many intricacies.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4631\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Modern coral reefs and other highly-productive shallow marine environments are thought to be the sources of most petroleum resources.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Converting solar energy by living organisms into hydrocarbon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a> is a complex process. As organisms die, they decompose slowly, usually due to being buried rapidly, and the chemical energy stored within the organisms\u2019 tissues is buried within surrounding geologic materials. All <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil\u00a0fuels<\/a> contain carbon that was produced in an ancient environment. In environments rich with organic matter such as swamps, coral <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2898\">reefs<\/a>, and planktonic blooms, there is a higher potential for <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a> to accumulate. Indeed, there is some evidence that over geologic time, organic hydrocarbon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuel<\/a> material was highly produced globally. Lack of oxygen and moderate temperatures in the environment seem to help preserve these organic substances. Also, the heat and pressure applied to organic material after it is buried contribute to transforming it into higher quality materials, such as brown <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> to anthracite and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a> to gas. Heat and pressure can also cause mobile materials to migrate to conditions suitable for extraction.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.2.1. Fossil Fuels<\/b><\/h3>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">OIL AND GAS<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4632\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4632\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Oil_Reserves.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-943 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves-300x136.png\" alt=\"Darker countries are higher in oil\" width=\"300\" height=\"136\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves-300x136.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves-65x30.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves-225x102.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves-350x159.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Oil_Reserves.png 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4632\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">World Oil Reserves in 2013. Scale in billions of barrels.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>P<\/strong>etroleum is principally derived from organic-rich shallow\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2883\">marine<\/a>\u00a0sedimentary deposits where the remains of micro-organisms like plankton accumulated in fine grained <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2678\">sediments<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3337\">Petroleum<\/a>\u2019s liquid component is called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>,<\/strong>\u00a0and its gas component is called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a><\/strong>, which is mostly made up of methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>). As rocks such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2839\">shale<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2837\">mudstone<\/a>, or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestone<\/a> lithify, increasing pressure and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2689\">temperature<\/a> cause the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a> and gas to be squeezed out and migrate from the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3340\">source rock<\/a><\/strong> to a different rock unit higher in the rock column. Similar to the discussion of good\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3166\">aquifers<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/11-water\/\">Chapter 11<\/a>, if that rock is a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2834\">sandstone<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestone<\/a>, or other porous and permeable rock, and involved in a suitable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2859\">stratigraphic<\/a> or structural trapping process, then that rock can act as an<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>\u00a0and gas<strong> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3341\">reservoir<\/a><\/strong>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4633\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4633\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-944 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_-300x194.png\" alt=\"The rock layers are folded, and the petroleum is pooling toward the top of the fold.\" width=\"300\" height=\"194\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_-300x194.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_-65x42.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_-225x146.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Structural_Trap_Anticlinal.svg_.png 320w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4633\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A structural or anticline trap. The red on the image represents pooling petroleum. The green layer would be a permeable rock, and the yellow would be a reservoir rock.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>A\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3342\">trap<\/a><\/strong> is a combination of a subsurface geologic structure, a porous and permeable rock, and an impervious layer that helps block <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a> and gas from moving further, which concentrates it for humans to extract later. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3342\">trap<\/a> develops due to many different geologic situations. Examples include an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1457\">anticline<\/a> or domal structure, an impermeable salt <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1460\">dome<\/a>, or a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3065\">fault<\/a> bounded <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2859\">stratigraphic<\/a> block, which is porous rock next to nonporous rock. The different <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3342\">traps<\/a> have one thing in common: they pool fluid <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a> into a configuration in which extracting it is more likely to be profitable. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">Oil<\/a> or gas in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2857\">strata<\/a> outside of a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3342\">trap<\/a> renders it less viable to extract.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4634\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4634\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/TransgressionRegression.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-945 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression-300x199.png\" alt=\"Onlap is sediments moving toward the land. Offlap is moving away.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression-300x199.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression-225x149.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression-350x232.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/TransgressionRegression.png 500w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4634\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The rising sea levels of transgressions create onlapping sediments, regressions create offlapping.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2893\">Sequence stratigraphy<\/a><\/strong> is a branch of geology that studies sedimentary <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2913\">facies<\/a> both horizontally and vertically and is devoted to understanding how sea level changes create organic-rich shallow <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2883\">marine<\/a> muds, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1917\">carbonates<\/a>, and sands in areas that are close to each other. For example, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3195\">shoreline<\/a> environments may have beaches, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2900\">lagoons<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2898\">reefs<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3197\">nearshore<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3196\">offshore<\/a> deposits, all next to each other. Beach sand, lagoonal and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3197\">nearshore<\/a> muds, and coral reef layers accumulate into <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2678\">sediments<\/a> that include <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2834\">sandstones<\/a>\u2014good <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3341\">reservoir<\/a> rocks\u2014 next to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2837\">mudstones<\/a>, next to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestones<\/a>, both of which are potential <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3340\">source rocks<\/a>. As sea level either rises or falls, the shoreline\u2019s location changes, and the sand, mud, and reef locations shift with it (see the figure). This places oil and gas producing rocks, such as mudstones and limestones next to oil and gas reservoirs, such as sandstones and some limestones. Understanding how the lithology and the facies\/stratigraphic relationships interplay is very important in finding new petroleum resources. Using sequence stratigraphy as a model allows geologists to predict favorable locations of the source rock and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3341\">reservoir<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tar Sands<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4635\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4635\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-946 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California-300x286.jpg\" alt=\"The sandstone is black with tar.\" width=\"300\" height=\"286\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California-300x286.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California-65x62.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California-225x215.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California-350x334.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg 503w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4635\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tar sandstone from the Miocene Monterrey Formation of California.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Conventional<\/strong>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>\u00a0and gas, which is pumped from a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3341\">reservoir<\/a>, is not the only way to obtain hydrocarbons. There are a few fuel sources known as <strong>unconventional<\/strong>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3337\">petroleum<\/a>\u00a0sources. However, they are becoming more important as conventional sources become scarce.\u00a0<strong>Tar sands<\/strong>, or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3343\">oil sands<\/a>, are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2834\">sandstones<\/a> that contain <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3337\">petroleum<\/a> products that are highly <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3368\">viscous<\/a>, like tar, and thus cannot be drilled and pumped out of the ground readily like conventional <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>. This unconventional <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuel<\/a> is <strong>bitumen<\/strong>, which can be pumped as a fluid only at very low recovery rates and only when heated or mixed with solvents. So, using steam and solvent injections or directly <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> tar sands to process later are ways to extract the tar from the sands. Alberta, Canada is known to have the largest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3343\">tar sand<\/a> reserves in the world. Note: as with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ores<\/a>, an energy resource becomes uneconomic if the total extraction and processing costs exceed the extracted material\u2019s sales revenue. Environmental costs may also contribute to a resource becoming uneconomic.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Oil Shale<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4636\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4636\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Production_of_oil_shale.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-947 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale-300x195.png\" alt=\"Oil shale has dramatically increased starting around 1945.\" width=\"300\" height=\"195\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale-300x195.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale-65x42.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale-225x146.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale-350x227.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Production_of_oil_shale.png 525w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4636\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Global production of Oil Shale, 1880-2010.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3344\">Oil shale<\/a><\/strong>, or\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3344\">tight oil<\/a>, is a fine-grained\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2683\">sedimentary rock<\/a>\u00a0that has significant <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3337\">petroleum<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a> quantities locked tightly in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2678\">sediment<\/a>.\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2839\">Shale<\/a>\u00a0has high\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3163\">porosity<\/a>\u00a0but very low permeability and is a common <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuel<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3340\">source rock<\/a>. To extract the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a> directly from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2839\">shale<\/a>, the material has to be\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a>\u00a0and heated, which, like with tar sands, is expensive and typically has a negative environmental impact.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fracking<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4637\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4637\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/HydroFrac2.svg_.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-948 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_-300x175.png\" alt=\"The image shows fracking fluids cracking the rock, allowing methane to escape.\" width=\"300\" height=\"175\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_-300x175.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_-65x38.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_-225x131.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_-350x205.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HydroFrac2.svg_.png 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4637\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Schematic diagram of fracking.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Another process used to extract the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3338\">oil<\/a>\u00a0and gas from\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2839\">shale<\/a>\u00a0and other unconventional tight resources is called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3108\">hydraulic fracturing<\/a><\/strong>, better known as\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3108\">fracking<\/a><\/strong>. In this method, high-pressure water, sand grains, and added chemicals are injected and pumped underground. Under high pressure, this creates and holds open\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1934\">fractures<\/a>\u00a0in the rocks, which help release the hard-to-access mostly\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3339\">natural gas<\/a> fluids. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3108\">Fracking<\/a> is more useful in tighter\u00a0sediments, especially\u00a0shale, which has a high\u00a0porosity\u00a0to store the hydrocarbons but low permeability to allow transmission of the hydrocarbons.\u00a0Fracking\u00a0has become controversial because its methods contaminate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3129\">groundwater<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0induce <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3087\">seismic<\/a> activity. This has created much controversy between public concerns, political concerns, and energy value.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.2.2. Coal<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4638\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4638\" style=\"width: 240px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coal_Rank_USGS.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-949 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-240x300.png\" alt=\"The chart shows many different coal rankings\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-240x300.png 240w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-819x1024.png 819w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-768x960.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-65x81.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-225x281.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS-350x438.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_Rank_USGS.png 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4638\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">USGS diagram of different coal rankings.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">Coal<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0comes from fossilized swamps, though some older\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>\u00a0deposits that predate\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2902\">terrestrial<\/a>\u00a0plants are presumed to come from algal buildups. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">Coal<\/a> is chiefly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen, with minor amounts of other\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a>. As plant material is incorporated into\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2678\">sediments<\/a>, heat and pressure cause several changes that concentrate the fixed carbon, which is the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>\u2019s combustible portion. So, the more heat and pressure that\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>\u00a0undergoes, the greater is its carbon concentration and fuel value and the more desirable is the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>This is the general sequence of a swamp progressing through the various stages of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2960\">formation<\/a> and becoming more <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a> in carbon: Swamp =&gt; Peat =&gt; Lignite =&gt; Sub-bituminous =&gt; Bituminous =&gt; Anthracite =&gt; Graphite. As swamp materials collect on the swamp floor and are buried under accumulating materials, they first turn to peat.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4639\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4639\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Peat_49302157252.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-950\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"A lump of peat.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Peat_49302157252.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4639\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Peat (also known as turf) consists of partially decayed organic matter. The Irish have long mined peat to be burned as fuel though this practice is now discouraged for environmental reasons.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Peat itself is an economic fuel in some locations like the British Isles and Scandinavia. As <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2682\">lithification<\/a> occurs, peat turns to lignite. With increasing heat and pressure, lignite turns to sub-bituminous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>, bituminous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>, and then, in a process like <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2914\">metamorphism<\/a>, anthracite. Anthracite is the highest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2914\">metamorphic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2938\">grade<\/a> and most desirable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> since it provides the highest energy output. With even more heat and pressure driving out all the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2606\">volatiles<\/a> and leaving pure carbon, anthracite can become graphite.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4640\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4640\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Coal_anthracite.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4640 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;USGS\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Coal_anthracite-1.jpg\" alt=\"It is very black and shiny.\" width=\"300\" height=\"281\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4640\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Anthracite coal, the highest grade of coal.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Humans have used <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> for at least 6,000 years, mainly as a fuel source. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">Coal<\/a> resources in Wales are often cited as a primary reason for Britain\u2019s rise, and later, for the United States\u2019 rise during the Industrial Revolution. According to the US Energy Information Administration, US <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> production has decreased due to competing energy sources\u2019 cheaper prices and due to society recognizing its negative environmental impacts, including increased very fine-grained particulate matter as an air pollutant, greenhouse gases, acid rain, and heavy metal pollution. Seen from this perspective, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> industry as a source of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2176\">fossil<\/a> energy is unlikely to revive.<\/p>\n<p>As the world transitions away from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a> including <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a>, and manufacturing seeks strong, flexible, and lighter materials than steel including carbon fiber for many applications, current research is exploring <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2856\">coal<\/a> as a source of this carbon.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-108\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-108\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"108\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"16.2 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4902\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4902\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-952\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4902\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 16.2 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">16.3 Mineral Resources<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4641\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4641\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-953 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein-300x209.jpg\" alt=\"The yellow gold is inside white quartz.\" width=\"300\" height=\"209\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein-300x209.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein-65x45.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein-225x157.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein-350x244.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Mother_Lode_Gold_OreHarvard_mine_quartz-gold_vein.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4641\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gold-bearing quartz vein from California.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">Mineral<\/a>\u00a0resources, while principally\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a>, are generally placed\u00a0in two main categories:\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">metallic<\/a><\/strong>, which contain metals, and\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3346\">nonmetallic<\/a><\/strong>, which contain other useful materials. Most\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0has been traditionally focused on\u00a0extracting <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">metallic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>. Human society has advanced significantly because we\u2019ve developed the\u00a0knowledge and technologies to yield metal from the Earth. This knowledge has allowed humans to build the machines, buildings, and monetary systems that dominate our world today. Locating and recovering these metals has been a key facet of geologic study since its inception. Every\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">element<\/a>\u00a0across the periodic table has specific applications in human civilization.\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">Metallic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0is the source of many of these\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.3.1. Types of Metallic Mineral Deposits<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The various ways in which <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0and their associated\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a>\u00a0concentrate to form\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0deposits are too complex and numerous to fully review in this text. However, entire careers are built around them.\u00a0In the following section, we describe some of the more common deposit types along with their associated elemental concentrations and world class occurrences.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Magmatic Processes<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4642\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4642\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-954 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"The rock has several layers, with the dark layers being the ones with value.\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa-300x211.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa-65x46.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa-225x159.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa-350x247.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/LayeredIntrusionChromitite_Bushveld_South_Africa.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4642\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Layered intrusion of dark chromium-bearing minerals, Bushveld Complex, South Africa<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>When a magmatic body crystallizes and differentiates (see Chapter 4), it can cause certain <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a> to concentrate. <strong>Layered<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>intrusions<\/strong>, typically <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1957\">ultramafic<\/a> to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1956\">mafic<\/a>, can host deposits that contain copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, rhodium, and chromium. The Stillwater Complex in Montana is an example of economic quantities of layered <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1956\">mafic<\/a> intrusion. Associated deposit types can contain chromium or titanium-vanadium. The largest magmatic deposits in the world are the chromite deposits in the Bushveld <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">Igneous<\/a> Complex in South Africa. These rocks have an areal extent larger than the state of Utah. The chromite occurs in layers, which resemble sedimentary layers, except these layers occur within a crystallizing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1185\">magma chamber<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4909\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4909\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Elbai\u0308te_et_mica_Bre\u0301sil_1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-4909\" src=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Elbai\u0308te_et_mica_Bre\u0301sil_1-300x199.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"The rock is mostly green and purple\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4909\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This pegmatite contains lithium-rich green elbaite (a tourmaline) and purple lepidolite (a mica).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Water and other\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2606\">volatiles<\/a>\u00a0that are not incorporated into\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0crystals when a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a>\u00a0crystallizes can become\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a>\u00a0around the crystallizing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a>\u2019s margins. Ions in these hot fluids are very mobile and can form exceptionally large crystals.\u00a0Once crystallized, these large crystal masses are then called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1944\">pegmatites<\/a><\/strong>. They form from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a> fluids that are expelled from the solidifying <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a> when nearly the entire <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a> body has crystallized. In addition to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> that are predominant in the main <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">igneous<\/a> mass, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1915\">quartz<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1916\">feldspar<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1914\">mica<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1944\">pegmatite<\/a> bodies may also contain very large crystals of unusual <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> that contain rare <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a> like beryllium, lithium, tantalum, niobium, and tin, as well as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1924\">native<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a> like gold. Such <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1944\">pegmatites<\/a> are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ores<\/a> of these metals.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4643\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4643\" style=\"width: 298px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/KimberlitePipe.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-955 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-298x300.jpg\" alt=\"The pipe is deep and narrow.\" width=\"298\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-298x300.jpg 298w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-768x774.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-65x65.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-225x227.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe-350x353.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/KimberlitePipe.jpg 795w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 298px) 100vw, 298px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4643\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Schematic diagram of a kimberlite pipe.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>An unusual magmatic process is a\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3348\">kimberlite<\/a><\/strong> pipe, which is a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1181\">volcanic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1186\">conduit<\/a> that transports <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1957\">ultramafic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a> from within the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2586\">mantle<\/a> to the surface. Diamonds, which are formed at great temperatures and pressures of depth, are transported by a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3348\">Kimberlite<\/a> pipe to locations where they can be <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a>. The process that created these <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3348\">kimberlite<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1957\">ultramafic<\/a> rocks is no longer common on Earth. Most known deposits are from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2205\">Archean<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2190\">Eon<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Hydrothermal Processes<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4644\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4644\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Deep_sea_vent_chemistry_diagram.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4644\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Deep_sea_vent_chemistry_diagram-1.jpg\" alt=\"The diagram shows water going into the ground and coming out, with many different reactions.\" width=\"400\" height=\"233\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4644\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The complex chemistry around mid-ocean ridges.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Fluids rising from crystallizing magmatic bodies or that are heated by the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1175\">geothermal gradient<\/a>\u00a0cause many geochemical reactions that form various <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0deposits. The most active\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a>\u00a0process today produces\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3349\">volcanogenic massive sulfide<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>(VMS) deposits, which form from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2922\">black smoker<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a> chimney activity near <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2630\">mid-ocean ridges<\/a> all over the world. They commonly contain copper, zinc, lead, gold, and silver when found at the surface. Evidence from around 7000 BC in a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2192\">period<\/a> known as the Chalcolithic shows copper was among the earliest metals smelted by humans as means of obtaining higher temperatures were developed. The largest of these VMS deposits occur in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2218\">Precambrian<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2192\">period<\/a> rocks. The Jerome deposit in central Arizona is a good example.<\/p>\n<p>Another deposit type that draws on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a>-heated water is a\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a><\/strong> deposit. This is not to be confused with the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1942\">porphyritic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">igneous<\/a> texture, although the name is derived from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1942\">porphyritic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2919\">texture<\/a> that is nearly always present in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">igneous<\/a> rocks associated with a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a> deposit. Several types of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a> deposits exist, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a> copper, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a> molybdenum, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a> tin. These deposits contain low-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2938\">grade<\/a> disseminated <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> closely associated with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1955\">intermediate<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1954\">felsic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1939\">intrusive<\/a> rocks that are present over a very large area. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">Porphyry<\/a> deposits are typically the largest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mines<\/a> on Earth. One of the largest, richest, and possibly best studied <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> in the world is Utah\u2019s Kennecott Bingham Canyon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">Mine<\/a>. It\u2019s an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3329\">open pit mine<\/a>, which, for over 100 years, has produced several <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">elements<\/a> including copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver. Underground <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1917\">carbonate<\/a> replacement deposits produce lead, zinc, gold, silver, and copper. In the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a>\u2019s past, the open pit predominately produced copper and gold from chalcopyrite and bornite. Gold only occurs in minor quantities in the copper-bearing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>, but because the Kennecott Bingham Canyon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">Mine<\/a> produces on such a large scale, it is one of the largest gold <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mines<\/a> in the US. In the future, this <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> may produce more copper and molybdenum (molybdenite) from deeper <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3331\">underground mines<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4645\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4645\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Morenci_Mine_2012.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-957 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The mine contains grey rocks, which are not enriched, and red rocks, which is where the enrichment occurs.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012-350x234.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Morenci_Mine_2012.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4645\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Morenci porphyry is oxidized toward its top (as seen as red rocks in the wall of the mine), creating supergene enrichment.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Most <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a>\u00a0copper deposits owe their high metal content, and hence, their economic value to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2676\">weathering<\/a>\u00a0processes called<strong> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3351\">supergene enrichment<\/a><\/strong> which occurs when the\u00a0deposit is uplifted, eroded, and exposed to\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2818\">oxidation<\/a><\/strong>. This process <b>occur<\/b>r<b>ed<\/b> millions of years after the initial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">igneous<\/a> intrusion and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a> expulsion ends. When the deposit\u2019s upper pyrite-rich portion is exposed to rain, the pyrite in the oxidizing zone creates an extremely acid condition that dissolves copper out of copper\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>,\u00a0such as chalcopyrite, and converts the chalcopyrite to iron\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1919\">oxides<\/a>,\u00a0such as hematite or goethite. The copper <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> are carried downward in\u00a0water until they arrive at the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3129\">groundwater<\/a>\u00a0table and an environment where the primary copper\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> are converted\u00a0into secondary higher-copper content\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>. Chalcopyrite (35% Cu) is converted to bornite (63% Cu), and ultimately, chalcocite (80% Cu).\u00a0Without this enriched zone, which is two to five times higher in copper content than the main deposit, most\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a>\u00a0copper deposits would not be economic to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4646\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4646\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-958 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-300x255.jpg\" alt=\"Calcite is blue, augite green, and garnet brown\/orange in this rock.\" width=\"300\" height=\"255\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-300x255.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-1024x871.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-768x654.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-65x55.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-225x191.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn-350x298.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3_6_cm_grossular_calcite_augite_skarn.jpg 1410w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4646\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Garnet-augite skarn from Italy.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>If\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestone<\/a>\u00a0or other calcareous sedimentary rocks are near the magmatic body, then another type of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>\u00a0deposit called a\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3352\">skarn<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0deposit forms. These\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2914\">metamorphic<\/a>\u00a0rocks form as\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a>-derived, highly saline metalliferous fluids react with\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1917\">carbonate<\/a>\u00a0rocks to create calcium-magnesium-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2709\">silicate<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0like\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2712\">pyroxene<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2713\">amphibole<\/a>, and garnet, as well as high-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2938\">grade<\/a>\u00a0iron, copper, zinc\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>,\u00a0and gold. Intrusions that are genetically related to the intrusion that made the Kennecott Bingham Canyon deposit have also produced copper-gold skarns, which were\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a>\u00a0by the early European settlers in Utah. When iron and\/or\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1921\">sulfide<\/a>\u00a0deposits undergo <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2914\">metamorphism<\/a>, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2828\">grain\u00a0size<\/a>\u00a0commonly increases, which makes separating the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3332\">gangue<\/a>\u00a0from the desired\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1921\">sulfide<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1919\">oxide<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0much easier.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4647\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4647\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/GoldinPyrite.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4647 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;&lt;a\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/GoldinPyrite-1.jpg\" alt=\"The rock is red.\" width=\"300\" height=\"240\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4647\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">In this rock, a pyrite cube has dissolved (as seen with the negative &#8220;corner&#8221; impression in the rock), leaving behind small specks of gold.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3353\">Sediment-hosted disseminated gold<\/a><\/strong> deposits consist of low concentrations of microscopic gold as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2958\">inclusions<\/a> and disseminated atoms in pyrite crystals. These are formed via low-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2938\">grade<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a> reactions, generally in the realm of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2827\">diagenesis<\/a>, that occur in certain rock types, namely muddy <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1917\">carbonates<\/a> and limey <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2837\">mudstones<\/a>. This <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a> alteration is generally far removed from a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a> source, but can be found in rocks situated with a high <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1175\">geothermal gradient<\/a>. The Mercur deposit in Utah\u2019s Oquirrh Mountains was this type\u2019s earliest locally <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> deposit. There, almost a million ounces of gold was recovered between 1890 and 1917. In the 1960s, a metallurgical process using cyanide was developed for these low-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2938\">grade<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a> types. These deposits are also called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3353\">Carlin-type<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits\u00a0because the disseminated deposit near Carlin, Nevada, is where the new technology was first applied and where the first definitive scientific studies were conducted. Gold was introduced into these deposits by\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a>\u00a0fluids that reacted with silty calcareous rocks, removing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1917\">carbonate<\/a>, creating additional permeability, and adding silica and gold-bearing pyrite in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3116\">pore<\/a>\u00a0space between grains. The Betze-Post\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a>\u00a0and the Gold Quarry\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a>\u00a0on the Carlin Trend are two of the largest disseminated gold deposits in Nevada. Similar deposits, but not as large, have been found in China, Iran, and Macedonia.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Non-magmatic Geochemical Processes <\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4648\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4648\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-960 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;&lt;a\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"A dark shaft runs into the mountain.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.1_UraniumMineUtah.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4648\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Underground uranium mine near Moab, Utah.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Geochemical processes that occur at or near the surface without <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2672\">magma<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0aid also concentrate metals, but to a lesser degree than\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2921\">hydrothermal<\/a>\u00a0processes. One of the main reactions is\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3354\">redox<\/a><\/strong>, short for reduction\/<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2818\">oxidation<\/a> chemistry, which has to do with the amount of available oxygen in a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2664\">system<\/a>. Places where oxygen is plentiful, as in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2667\">atmosphere<\/a> today, are considered oxidizing environments, while oxygen-poor places are considered reducing environments. Uranium deposits are an example of where <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3354\">redox<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a> the metal. Uranium is soluble in oxidizing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3129\">groundwater<\/a> environments and precipitates as uraninite when encountering reducing conditions. Many of the deposits across the Colorado Plateau, such as in \u00a0Moab, Utah, were formed by this method.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3354\">Redox<\/a>\u00a0reactions are also responsible for creating <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2848\"><strong>banded iron<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>formations<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>(BIFs),<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>which are interbedded layers of iron\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1919\">oxide<\/a>\u2014hematite and magnetite,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2849\">chert<\/a>, and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2839\">shale<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2858\">beds<\/a>. These deposits formed early in the Earth\u2019s history as the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2667\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0was becoming oxygenated. Cycles of oxygenating iron-rich waters initiated <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2707\">precipitation<\/a> of the\u00a0iron\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2858\">beds<\/a>. Because BIFs are generally\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2218\">Precambrian<\/a>\u00a0in age, happening at the event of atmospheric oxygenation, they are only found in some of the older exposed rocks in the United States, such as in Michigan\u2019s upper peninsula and northeast Minnesota.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4649\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4649\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-961 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-300x138.png\" alt=\"The are globally distributed.\" width=\"300\" height=\"138\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-300x138.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-1024x470.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-768x353.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-1536x705.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-65x30.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-225x103.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_-350x161.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/MV-Type_and_clastic_sediment-hosted_lead-zinc_deposits.svg_.png 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4649\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of Mississippi-Valley type ore deposits.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Deep, saline, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3164\">connate fluids<\/a> (trapped in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3116\">pore<\/a> spaces) within <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1463\">sedimentary basins<\/a>\u00a0may be highly metalliferous. When expelled outward and upward as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1461\">basin<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2678\">sediments<\/a> compacted, these fluids formed lead and zinc deposits in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestone<\/a> by replacing or filling open spaces, such as caves and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3065\">faults<\/a>, and in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2834\">sandstone<\/a> by filling <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3116\">pore<\/a> spaces. The most famous are called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3355\">Mississippi Valley-type<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits. Also known as\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3355\">carbonate-hosted replacement<\/a>\u00a0deposits, they are large deposits of galena and sphalerite lead and zinc\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ores<\/a> that form from hot fluids ranging from 100\u00b0C to 200\u00b0C (212\u00b0F to 392\u00b0F). Although they are named for occurring along the Mississippi\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3134\">River<\/a>\u00a0Valley in the US, they are found worldwide.<\/p>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3356\">Sediment-hosted copper<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits occurring in\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2834\">sandstones<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2839\">shales<\/a>, and marls are enormous, and their contained resources are comparable to\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3350\">porphyry<\/a>\u00a0copper deposits. These deposits were most likely formed diagenetically by\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3129\">groundwater<\/a>\u00a0fluids in highly permeable rocks. Well-known examples are the Kupferschiefer in Europe, which has an areal coverage of &gt;500,000 Km<sup>2<\/sup>, (310,685.596mi) and the Zambian Copper Belt in Africa.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4650\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4650\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bauxite_with_unweathered_rock_core._C_021.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4650 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Bauxite_with_unweathered_rock_core._C_021-1.jpg\" alt=\"The outside of the rock is tan and weathered, the inside is grey.\" width=\"300\" height=\"195\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4650\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A sample of bauxite. Note the unweathered igneous rock in the center.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1203\">Soils<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0deposits that are exposed at the surface experience deep and intense\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2676\">weathering<\/a>, which\u00a0can form surficial deposits.\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3357\">Bauxite<\/a><\/strong>, an aluminum <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3325\">ore<\/a>, is preserved in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2817\">karst<\/a> topography and laterites, which are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1203\">soils<\/a> formed in wet tropical environments. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1203\">Soils<\/a> containing aluminum concentrate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1916\">feldspar<\/a>, and ferromagnesian <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">igneous<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2914\">metamorphic<\/a> rocks, undergo <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2812\">chemical weathering<\/a> processes that concentrate the metals. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1957\">Ultramafic<\/a> rocks that undergo <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2676\">weathering<\/a> form nickel-rich <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1203\">soils<\/a>, and when the magnetite and hematite in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2848\">banded iron formations<\/a> undergo <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2676\">weathering<\/a>, it forms goethite, a friable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> that is easily <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> for its iron content.<\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Surficial Physical Processes <\/span><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4651\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4651\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/HeavyMineralsBeachSand.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4651 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/HeavyMineralsBeachSand-1.jpg\" alt=\"The tan rock has dark streaks of minerals.\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4651\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lithified heavy mineral sand (dark layers) from a beach deposit in India.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>At the Earth\u2019s surface, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3110\">mass wasting<\/a>\u00a0and moving water can cause hydraulic\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2829\">sorting<\/a>, which forces high-density\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrate<\/a>. When these\u00a0minerals\u00a0are\u00a0concentrated\u00a0in\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3134\">streams<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3134\">rivers<\/a>,\u00a0and beaches, they are called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3358\">placer<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0deposits, and occur in modern sands and ancient lithified rocks.\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1924\">Native<\/a>\u00a0gold,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1924\">native<\/a>\u00a0platinum,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2175\">zircon<\/a>, ilmenite, rutile, magnetite, diamonds, and other gemstones can be found in\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3358\">placers<\/a>. Humans have mimicked this natural process to recover gold manually by gold panning and by mechanized means such as dredging.<\/p>\n<h3><b>16.3.2. Environmental Impacts of Metallic Mineral Mining<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4652\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4652\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-964 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The water in the river is bright orange.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center.jpg 650w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4652\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto, Spain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">Metallic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0primary impact comes from the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a>\u00a0itself, including disturbing the land surface, covering landscapes with tailings impoundments, and increasing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3110\">mass wasting<\/a>\u00a0by accelerating\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2677\">erosion<\/a>. In addition, many metal deposits contain pyrite, an uneconomic\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1921\">sulfide<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>, that when\u00a0placed on waste dumps, generates\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3359\">acid rock drainage<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(ARD)<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2676\">weathering<\/a>. In oxygenated water, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1921\">sulfides<\/a> such as pyrite react and undergo complex reactions to release metal ions and hydrogen ions, which lowers pH to highly acidic levels. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">Mining<\/a> and processing of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> materials typically increase the surface area to volume ratio in the material, causing chemical reactions to occur even faster than would occur naturally. If not managed properly, these reactions lead to acidic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3134\">streams<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3129\">groundwater<\/a> plumes that carry <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2815\">dissolved<\/a> toxic metals. In <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mines<\/a> where <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestone<\/a> is a waste rock or where <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1917\">carbonate<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a> like <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1918\">calcite<\/a> or dolomite are present, their acid neutralizing potential helps reduce <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3359\">acid rock drainage<\/a>. Although this is a natural process too, it is very important to isolate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mine<\/a> dumps and tailings from oxygenated water, both to prevent the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1921\">sulfides<\/a> from dissolving and subsequently percolating the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1922\">sulfate<\/a>-rich water into waterways. Industry has taken great strides to prevent contamination in recent decades, but earlier <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mining<\/a> projects are still causing problems with local ecosystems.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>16.3.3. Nonmetallic Mineral\u00a0Deposits<\/strong><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4653\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4653\" style=\"width: 225px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/CarraraMarblequarry.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-965 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"The image shows a hillside with blocks of marble removed.\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry-65x87.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry-350x467.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/CarraraMarblequarry.jpg 1152w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4653\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Carrara marble quarry in Italy, source to famous sculptures like Michelangelo&#8217;s David.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While receiving much less attention, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3346\">nonmetallic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> resources, also known as industrial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>, are just as vital to ancient and modern society as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">metallic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>. The most basic is building stone. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">Limestone<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2847\">travertine<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1962\">granite<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2926\">slate<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2936\">marble<\/a> are common building stones and have been quarried for centuries. Even today, building stones from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2926\">slate<\/a> roof tiles to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1962\">granite<\/a> countertops are very popular. Especially pure <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2851\">limestone<\/a> is ground up, processed, and reformed as plaster, cement, and concrete. Some <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3346\">nonmetallic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> resources are not <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> specific; nearly any rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> can be used. This is generally called aggregate, which is used in concrete, roads, and foundations. Gravel is one of the more common aggregates.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Evaporites<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4654\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4654\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bonneville_Salt_Flats_Utah.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4654 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Bonneville_Salt_Flats_Utah-1.jpg\" alt=\"The ground is white and flat for a long distance.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4654\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Salt-covered plain known as the Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2842\">Evaporite<\/a><\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>deposits\u00a0form in restricted basins where water evaporates faster than it <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3177\">recharges<\/a>, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea, which borders Israel and Jordan. As the waters evaporate, soluble\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0are\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3333\">concentrated<\/a>\u00a0and become supersaturated, at which point they\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2707\">precipitate<\/a>\u00a0from the now highly-saline waters. If these conditions persist for long stretches, thick rock salt, rock\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2843\">gypsum<\/a>,\u00a0and other\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0deposits accumulate (see Chapter 5).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4655\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4655\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Hanksite.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-967 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;By\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The mineral is hexagonal and clear.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite-350x234.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Hanksite.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4655\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hanksite, Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2842\">Evaporite<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2844\">halite<\/a>, are used in our food as common table salt. Salt was a vitally important food preservative and economic resource before refrigeration was developed. While still used in food, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2844\">halite<\/a> is now mainly <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> as a chemical agent, water softener, or road de-icer. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2843\">Gypsum<\/a> is a common <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3346\">nonmetallic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> used as a building material; it is the main component in dry wall. It is also used as a fertilizer. Other <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2842\">evaporites<\/a> include sylvite\u2014potassium chloride, and bischofite\u2014magnesium chloride, both of which are used in agriculture, medicine, food processing, and other applications. Potash, a group of highly soluble potassium-bearing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2842\">evaporite<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">minerals<\/a>, is used as a fertilizer. In hyper-arid locations, even more rare and complex <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2842\">evaporites<\/a>, like borax, trona, ulexite, and hanksite are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a>. They can be found in places such as Searles Dry Lake and Death Valley, California, and in the Green <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3134\">River<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2960\">Formation<\/a>\u2019s ancient <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2842\">evaporite<\/a> deposits in Utah and Wyoming.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Phosphorus<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4656\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Apatite-CaF-280343.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4656 size-medium\" title=\"&quot;Rob\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Apatite-CaF-280343-1.jpg\" alt=\"The crystal is hexagonal and light green.\" width=\"300\" height=\"267\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Apatite from Mexico.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Phosphorus is an essential <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2700\">element<\/a> that occurs in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> apatite, which is found in trace amounts in common <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2675\">igneous<\/a> rocks. Phosphorite rock, which is formed in sedimentary environments in the ocean, contains abundant apatite and is <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> to make fertilizer. Without phosphorus, life as we know it is not possible. Phosphorous is an important component of bone and DNA. Bone <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1949\">ash<\/a> and guano are natural sources of phosphorus.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-109\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-109\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"109\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"16.3 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4903\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4903\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-969\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/16.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4903\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 16.3 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>Summary<\/h1>\n<p>Energy and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">mineral<\/a> resources are vital to modern society, and it is the role of the geologist to locate these resources for human benefit. As environmental concerns have become more prominent, the value of the geologist has not decreased, as they are still vital in locating the deposits and identifying the least <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_1939\">intrusive<\/a> methods of extraction.<\/p>\n<p>Energy resources are general grouped as being <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a>. Geologists can aid in locating the best places to exploit <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2662\">renewable<\/a> resources (e.g. locating a dam), but are commonly tasked with finding <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2661\">nonrenewable<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3336\">fossil fuels<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">Mineral<\/a> resources are also grouped in two categories: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3345\">metallic<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3346\">nonmetallic<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_2687\">Minerals<\/a> have a wide variety of processes that concentrate them to economic levels, and are usually <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_971_3324\">mined<\/a> via surface or underground methods.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this Chapter.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-110\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-110\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"110\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Chapter 16 Review\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4904\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4904\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-970\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accdigitalmarketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/222\/2025\/01\/Ch.16-Review-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4904\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 16 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Ague, Jay James, and George H. Brimhall. 1989. \u201cGeochemical Modeling of Steady State Fluid Flow and Chemical Reaction during Supergene Enrichment of Porphyry Copper Deposits.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 84 (3). economicgeology.org: 506\u201328.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Arndt, N. T. 1994. \u201cChapter 1 Archean Komatiites.\u201d In <em>Developments in Precambrian Geology<\/em>, edited by K.C. Condie, 11:11\u201344. Elsevier.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">B\u00e1rdossy, Gy\u00f6rgy, and Gerardus Jacobus Johannes Aleva. 1990. <em>Lateritic Bauxites<\/em>. Vol. 27. Elsevier Science Ltd.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Barrie, C. T. 1999. \u201cVolcanic-Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits: Processes and Examples in Modern and Ancient Settings.\u201d Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 8. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Michael_Perfit\/publication\/241276560_Geologic_petrologic_and_geochemical_relationships_between_magmatism_and_massive_sulfide_mineralization_along_the_eastern_Galapagos_Spreading_Center\/links\/02e7e51c8707bbfe9c000000.pdf.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Barrie, L. A., and R. M. Hoff. 1984. \u201cThe Oxidation Rate and Residence Time of Sulphur Dioxide in the Arctic Atmosphere.\u201d <em>Atmospheric Environment<\/em> 18 (12). Elsevier: 2711\u201322.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Bauquis, Pierre-Ren\u00e9. 1998. \u201cWhat Future for Extra Heavy Oil and Bitumen: The Orinoco Case.\u201d In <em>Paper Presented by TOTAL at the World Energy Congress<\/em>, 13:18.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Belloc, H. 1913. <em>The Servile State<\/em>. T.N. Foulis.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Blander, M., S. Sinha, A. Pelton, and G. Eriksson. 2011. \u201cCalculations of the Influence of Additives on Coal Combustion Deposits.\u201d <em>Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois<\/em>. enersol.pk, 315.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Boudreau, Alan E. 2016. \u201cThe Stillwater Complex, Montana&#8211;Overview and the Significance of Volatiles.\u201d <em>Mineralogical Magazine<\/em> 80 (4). Mineralogical Society: 585\u2013637.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Bromfield, C. S., A. J. Erickson, M. A. Haddadin, and H. H. Mehnert. 1977. \u201cPotassium-Argon Ages of Intrusion, Extrusion, and Associated Ore Deposits, Park City Mining District, Utah.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 72 (5). economicgeology.org: 837\u201348.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Brown, Valerie J. 2007. \u201cIndustry Issues: Putting the Heat on Gas.\u201d Environmental Health Perspectives 115 (2). ncbi.nlm.nih.gov: A76.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Cabri, Louis J., Donald C. Harris, and Thorolf W. Weiser. 1996. \u201cMineralogy and Distribution of Platinum-Group Mineral (PGM) Placer Deposits of the World.\u201d <em>Exploration and Mining Geology<\/em> 2 (5). infona.pl: 73\u2013167.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Crutzen, Paul J., and Jos Lelieveld. 2001. \u201cHuman Impacts on Atmospheric Chemistry.\u201d <em>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences<\/em> 29 (1). Annual Reviews 4139 El Camino Way, PO Box 10139, Palo Alto, CA 94303-0139, USA: 17\u201345.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Delaney, M. L. 1998. \u201cPhosphorus Accumulation in Marine Sediments and the Oceanic Phosphorus Cycle.\u201d <em>Global Biogeochemical Cycles<\/em> 12 (4). Wiley Online Library: 563\u201372.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Demaison, G. J., and G. T. Moore. 1980. \u201cAnoxic Environments and Oil Source Bed Genesis.\u201d Organic Geochemistry 2 (1). Elsevier: 9\u201331.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Dott, Robert H., and Merrill J. Reynolds. 1969. \u201cSourcebook for Petroleum Geology.\u201d American Association of Petroleum Geologists Tulsa, Okla. http:\/\/archives.datapages.com\/data\/specpubs\/methodo1\/data\/a072\/a072\/0001\/0000\/vi.htm.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Duffield, Wendell A. 2005. \u201cVolcanoes, Geothermal Energy, and the Environment.\u201d <em>Volcanoes and the Environment<\/em>. Cambridge University Press, 304.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Einaudi, Marco T., and Donald M. Burt. 1982. \u201cIntroduction; Terminology, Classification, and Composition of Skarn Deposits.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 77 (4). economicgeology.org: 745\u201354.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Gandossi, Luca. 2013. \u201cAn Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing and Other Formation Stimulation Technologies for Shale Gas Production.\u201d <em>Eur. Commisison Jt. Res. Cent. Tech. Reports<\/em>. skalunudujos.lt. http:\/\/skalunudujos.lt\/wp-content\/uploads\/an-overview-of-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-stimulation-technologies.pdf.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Gordon, Mackenzie, Jr, Joshua I. Tracey Jr, and Miller W. Ellis. 1958. \u201cGeology of the Arkansas Bauxite Region.\u201d pubs.er.usgs.gov. https:\/\/pubs.er.usgs.gov\/publication\/pp299.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Gordon, W. Anthony. 1975. \u201cDistribution by Latitude of Phanerozoic Evaporite Deposits.\u201d <em>The Journal of Geology<\/em> 83 (6). journals.uchicago.edu: 671\u201384.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Haber, Fritz. 2002. \u201cThe Synthesis of Ammonia from Its Elements Nobel Lecture, June 2, 1920.\u201d <em>Resonance<\/em> 7 (9). Springer India: 86\u201394.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hawley, Charles Caldwell. 2014. <em>A Kennecott Story: Three Mines, Four Men, and One Hundred Years, 1887-1997<\/em>. University of Utah Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hirsch, Robert L., Roger Bezdek, and Robert Wendling. 2006. \u201cPeaking of World Oil Production and Its Mitigation.\u201d <em>AIChE Journal. American Institute of Chemical Engineers<\/em> 52 (1). Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company: 2\u20138.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hitzman, M., R. Kirkham, D. Broughton, J. Thorson, and D. Selley. 2005. \u201cThe Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Ore System.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 100th . eprints.utas.edu.au. http:\/\/eprints.utas.edu.au\/705\/.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Hofstra, Albert H., and Jean S. Cline. 2000. \u201cCharacteristics and Models for Carlin-Type Gold Deposits.\u201d <em>Reviews in Economic Geology<\/em> 13. Society of Economic Geologists: 163\u2013220.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">James, L. P. 1979. <em>Geology, Ore Deposits, and History of the Big Cottonwood Mining District, Salt Lake County, Utah<\/em>. Bulletin (Utah Geological and Mineral Survey). Utah Geological and Mineral Survey, Utah Department of Natural Resources.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Kim, Won-Young. 2013. \u201cInduced Seismicity Associated with Fluid Injection into a Deep Well in Youngstown, Ohio.\u201d <em>Journal of Geophysical Research, [Solid Earth]<\/em> 118 (7). Wiley Online Library: 3506\u201318.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Klein, Cornelis. 2005. \u201cSome Precambrian Banded Iron-Formations (BIFs) from around the World: Their Age, Geologic Setting, Mineralogy, Metamorphism, Geochemistry, and Origins.\u201d <em>The American Mineralogist<\/em> 90 (10). Mineralogical Society of America: 1473\u201399.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Laylin, James K. 1993. <em>Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901-1992<\/em>. Chemical Heritage Foundation.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Leach, D. L., and D. F. Sangster. 1993. \u201cMississippi Valley-Type Lead-Zinc Deposits.\u201d <em>Mineral Deposit Modeling: Geological<\/em>. researchgate.net. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Elisabeth_Rowan\/publication\/252527999_Genetic_link_between_Ouachita_foldbelt_tectonism_and_the_Mississippi_Valley-type_Lead-zinc_deposits_of_the_Ozarks\/links\/00b7d53c97ac2d6fe7000000.pdf.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Lehmann, Bernd. 2008. \u201cUranium Ore Deposits.\u201d <em>Rev. Econ. Geol. AMS Online 2008<\/em>. kenanaonline.com: 16\u201326.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">London, David, and Daniel J. Kontak. 2012. \u201cGranitic Pegmatites: Scientific Wonders and Economic Bonanzas.\u201d <em>Elements<\/em> 8 (4). GeoScienceWorld: 257\u201361.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Mancuso, Joseph J., and Ronald E. Seavoy. 1981. \u201cPrecambrian Coal or Anthraxolite; a Source for Graphite in High-Grade Schists and Gneisses.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 76 (4). economicgeology.org: 951\u201354.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">McKenzie, Hermione, and Barrington Moore. 1970. \u201cSocial Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy.\u201d JSTOR. http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/27856441.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Needham, Joseph, Ling Wang, and Gwei Djen Lu. 1963. <em>Science and Civilisation in China<\/em>. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press Cambridge.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Nuss, Philip, and Matthew J. Eckelman. 2014. \u201cLife Cycle Assessment of Metals: A Scientific Synthesis.\u201d <em>PloS One<\/em> 9 (7). journals.plos.org: e101298.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Orton, E. 1889. <em>The Trenton Limestone as a Source of Petroleum and Inflammable Gas in Ohio and Indiana<\/em>. U.S. Government Printing Office.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Palmer, M. A., E. S. Bernhardt, W. H. Schlesinger, K. N. Eshleman, E. Foufoula-Georgiou, M. S. Hendryx, A. D. Lemly, et al. 2010. \u201cScience and Regulation. Mountaintop<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Mining Consequences.\u201d <em>Science<\/em> 327 (5962). science.sciencemag.org: 148\u201349.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Pratt, Wallace Everette. 1942. <em>Oil in the Earth<\/em>. University of Kansas Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Qu\u00e9r\u00e9, C. Le, Robert Joseph Andres, T. Boden, T. Conway, R. A. Houghton, Joanna I. House, Gregg Marland, et al. 2013. \u201cThe Global Carbon Budget 1959&#8211;2011.\u201d <em>Earth System Science Data<\/em> 5 (1). Copernicus GmbH: 165\u201385.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Richards, J. P. 2003. \u201cTectono-Magmatic Precursors for Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) Deposit Formation.\u201d <em>Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists<\/em> 98 (8). economicgeology.org: 1515\u201333.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Rui-Zhong, Hu, Su Wen-Chao, Bi Xian-Wu, Tu Guang-Zhi, and Albert H. Hofstra. 2002. \u201cGeology and Geochemistry of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in China.\u201d <em>Mineralium Deposita<\/em> 37 (3-4). Springer-Verlag: 378\u201392.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Schr\u00f6der, K-P, and Robert Connon Smith. 2008. \u201cDistant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited.\u201d <em>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society<\/em> 386 (1). mnras.oxfordjournals.org: 155\u201363.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Semaw, Sileshi, Michael J. Rogers, Jay Quade, Paul R. Renne, Robert F. Butler, Manuel Dominguez-Rodrigo, Dietrich Stout, William S. Hart, Travis Pickering, and Scott W. Simpson. 2003. \u201c2.6-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools and Associated Bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia.\u201d <em>Journal of Human Evolution<\/em> 45 (2). Academic Press: 169\u201377.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Tappan, Helen, and Alfred R. Loeblich. 1970. \u201cGeobiologic Implications of Fossil Phytoplankton Evolution and Time-Space Distribution.\u201d <em>Geological Society of America Special Papers<\/em> 127 (January). specialpapers.gsapubs.org: 247\u2013340.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Taylor, E. L., T. N. Taylor, and M. Krings. 2009. <em>Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants<\/em>. Elsevier Science.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Tissot, B. 1979. \u201cEffects on Prolific Petroleum Source Rocks and Major Coal Deposits Caused by Sea-Level Changes.\u201d <em>Nature<\/em> 277. adsabs.harvard.edu: 463\u201365.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Vail, P. R., R. M. Mitchum Jr, S. Thompson III, R. G. Todd, J. B. Sangree, J. M. Widmier, J. N. Bubb, and W. G. Hatelid. 1977. \u201cSeismic Stratigraphy and Global Sea Level Changes.\u201d <em>Seismic Stratigraphy-Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration, Edited by Payton, CE, Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir<\/em> 26: 49\u2013212.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Vogel, J. C. 1970. \u201cGroningen Radiocarbon Dates IX.\u201d <em>Radiocarbon<\/em> 12 (2). journals.uair.arizona.edu: 444\u201371.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Willemse, J. 1969. \u201cThe Geology of the Bushveld Igneous Complex, the Largest Repository of Magmatic Ore Deposits in the World.\u201d <em>Economic Geology Monograph<\/em> 4: 1\u201322.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Wrigley, E. A. 1990. <em>Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England. Ellen McArthur Lectures<\/em> ; 1987. Cambridge University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Youngquist, Walter. 1998. \u201cShale Oil&#8211;The Elusive Energy.\u201d <em>Hubbert Center Newsletter<\/em> 4.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_971_2662\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2662\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A resource which is replaced on human time scales.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2661\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2661\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A resource that is not able to be replaced on human time scales.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3336\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3336\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Energy resources (typically hydrocarbons) derived from ancient chemical energy preserved in the geologic record. Includes coal, oil, and natural gas.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3337\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3337\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A fossil fuel derived from shallow marine rocks. Consists of oil and natural gas.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3345\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3345\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals with a luster similar to metal and contain metals, including valuable elements like lead, zinc, copper, tin, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2687\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2687\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A natural substance that is typically solid, has a crystalline structure, and is typically formed by inorganic processes. Minerals are the building blocks of most rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3346\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3346\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals that have a luster that is not similar to metal, and typically do not contain valuable metals like copper, lead, zinc, tin, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2192\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2192\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The third largest span of time recognized by geologists; smaller than a era, larger than a epoch. We are currently in the Quaternary period. Rocks of a specific period are called systems.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3324\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3324\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Place where material is extracted from the Earth for human use.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2667\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2667\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The gases that are part of the Earth, which are mainly nitrogen and oxygen.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2666\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2666\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The water part of the Earth, as a solid, liquid, or gas.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2590\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2590\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The outermost physical layer of the Earth, made of the entire crust and upper mantle. It is brittle and broken into a series of plates, and these plates move in various ways (relative to one another), causing the features of the theory of plate tectonics.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2856\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2856\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Former swamp-derived (plant) material that is part of the rock record.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3338\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3338\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A dark liquid fossil fuel derived from petroleum.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3339\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3339\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Gaseous fossil fuel derived from petroleum, mostly made of methane.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3333\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3333\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A mechanical process which takes ore and separates it from gangue material.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3325\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3325\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Valuable material in the Earth, typically used for metallic mineral resources.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2198\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2198\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A process inside stars where smaller atoms combine and form larger atoms.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3081\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3081\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Amount of movement during a faulting event.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1181\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1181\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Place where lava is erupted at the surface.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2580\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2580\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The outermost chemical layer of the Earth, defined by its low density and higher concentrations of lighter elements. The crust has two types: <strong>continental<\/strong>, which is the thick, more ductile, and lowest density, and <strong>oceanic<\/strong>, which is higher density, more brittle, and thinner.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2576\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2576\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The theory that the outer layer of the Earth (the lithosphere) is broken in several plates, and these plates move relative to one another, causing the major topographic features of Earth (e.g. mountains, oceans) and most earthquakes and volcanoes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2936\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2936\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A metamorphosed limestone.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2700\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2700\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A group of all atoms with a specific number of protons, having specific, universal, and unique properties.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1719\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1719\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Data which is out of the ordinary and does not fit previous trends.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3129\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3129\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Water that is below the surface.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2660\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2660\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Items that are found within Earth that are valuable and limited. Examples include coal, water, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3087\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3087\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Energy that radiates from fault movement via earthquakes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3328\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3328\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mining that occurs near the Earth's surface.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3329\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3329\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Large surface mine with opening carved into the ground.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3110\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3110\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Any downhill movement of material, caused by gravity.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3115\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3115\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Slope angle where shear forces and normal forces are equal.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1199\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1199\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>General term for sudden material falling down a slope due to gravity. The term can sometimes cover a wide range of events, including debris flows, rock falls, and mudslides.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3330\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3330\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mining that occurs as entire layers of ore and gangue are removed.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3331\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3331\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mining that occurs within tunnels and shafts inside the Earth.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2938\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2938\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A qualitative measure of the amount of metamorphism that has occurred or the amount of a resource present in an ore.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2815\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2815\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The process in which solids (like minerals) are disassociated and the ionic components are dispersed in a liquid (usually water).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2705\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2705\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The act of taking a solid and dissolving it into a liquid. This commonly occurs with salts and other minerals in water.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2707\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2707\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The act of a solid coming out of solution, typically resulting from a drop in temperature or a decrease of the dissolving material.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3332\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3332\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Material found around ore which is less valuable and needs to be removed in order to obtain ore.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3334\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3334\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A process which chemically separates desired element(s) from ore minerals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3335\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3335\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Removing trace elements from desired elements.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3358\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3358\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Deposit of heavy ores in stream or beach sediments.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2176\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2176\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Any evidence of ancient life.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1710\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1710\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Long term averages and variations within the conditions of the atmosphere.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2898\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2898\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A topographic high found away from the beach in deeper water, but still on the continental shelf. Typically, these are formed in tropical areas by organisms such as corals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2883\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2883\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Places that are under ocean water at all times.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2678\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2678\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Pieces of rock that have been weathered and possibly eroded.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2839\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2839\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A very fine-grained rock with very thin layering (fissile).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2837\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2837\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock made of primarily mud, i.e. particles smaller than sand (\u22640.064 mm).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2851\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2851\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A chemical or biochemical rock made of mainly calcite.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2689\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2689\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The measure of the vibrational (kinetic) energy of a substance.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3340\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3340\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock that contains material which can be turned into petroleum resources. Organic-rich muds form good source rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3166\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3166\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock or sediment that has good permeability and porosity, and allows water to move easily, making it possible to get water for human use.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2834\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2834\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock primarily made of sand.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2859\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2859\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The study of rock layers and their relationships to each other within a specific area.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3341\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3341\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rocks which allow petroleum resources to collect or move.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3342\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3342\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A geologic circumstance (such as a fold, fault, change in lithology, etc.) which allows petroleum resources to collect.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1457\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1457\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Downward-facing fold, that has older rock in its core.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1460\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1460\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock up-warping of symmetrical anticlines.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3065\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3065\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Planer feature where two blocks of bedrock move past each other via earthquakes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2857\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2857\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Discernible layers of rock, typically from a sedimentary rock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2893\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2893\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The study of changes in the rock record caused by changing sea level over time.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2913\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2913\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific set of features that are tied together in an interpretive group. Facies can be based on mineralogy, biologic factors, fossils, rock types, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1917\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1917\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mineral group in which the carbonate ion, CO3-2, is the building block. This can also refer to the rocks that are made from these minerals, namely limestone and dolomite (dolostone).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3195\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3195\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The part of the coastline which is directly related to water-land interaction, specifically the tidal zone and the range of wave base.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2900\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2900\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Interior body of ocean water, at least partially cut off from the main ocean water.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3197\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3197\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Shore area between low tide and storm wave base. Upper part is dominated by fair weather wave base, lower part is dominated by storm wave base.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3196\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3196\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The part of the coastline which is below any wave base action.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3343\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3343\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sands or sandstones that contain high-viscosity petroleum.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3368\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3368\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The resistance of a fluid to flow, where a high value means a fluid which does not like to flow (like toothpaste), and a low value means a fluid which flows easily (like water).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3344\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3344\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Oil which is found in low-permeability, high-porosity rocks such as shale.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2683\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2683\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rocks that are formed by sedimentary processes, including sediments lithifying and precipitation from solution.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3163\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3163\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Amount of empty space within a rock or sediment, including space between grains, fractures, or voids.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3108\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3108\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A process of injecting pressurized fluids into the ground to aid in hydrocarbon migration.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1934\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1934\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A break within a rock that has no relative movement between the sides. Caused by cooling, pressure release, tectonic forces, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2902\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2902\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Depositional environments that are on land.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2960\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2960\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An extensive, distinct, and mapped set of geologic layers.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2682\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2682\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The process of turning sediment into a sedimentary rocks, including deposition, compaction, and cementation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2914\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2914\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rocks and minerals that change within the Earth are called metamorphic, changed by heat and pressure. Metamorphism is the name of the process.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2606\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2606\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Components of magma which are dissolved until it reaches the surface, where they expand. Examples include water and carbon dioxide. Volatiles also cause flux melting in the mantle, causing volcanism.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1957\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1957\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An igneous rock with extremely low silica composition, being made of almost all olivine and pyroxene. Ultramafic rocks contain very low amount of silica and are common in the mantle. Primary ultramafic rocks are komatiite (extrusive) and peridotite (intrusive).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1956\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1956\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Can refer to a volcanic rock with lower silica composition, or the minerals that make up those rocks, namely olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Mafic rocks are darker in color and contain more minerals that are dark in color, but can contain some plagioclase feldspar. Primary mafic rocks are basalt (extrusive) and gabbro (intrusive).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2675\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2675\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rocks that are formed from liquid rock, i.e. from volcanic processes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1185\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1185\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A reservoir of magma below a volcano.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2672\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2672\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Liquid rock within the Earth.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1944\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1944\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock (or texture within a rock) with unusually-large crystals, minerals with rare trace element concentrations, and\/or unusual minerals, typically forming in veins as the last dredges of magma crystallize.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1915\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1915\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>SiO2. Transparent, but can be any color imaginable with impurities. No cleavage, hard, and commonly forms equant masses. Perfect crystals are hexagonal prisms topped with pyramidal shapes. One of the most common minerals, and is found in many different geologic settings, including the dominant component of sand on the surface of Earth. Structure is a three-dimensional network of silica tetrahedra, connected as much as possible to each other.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1916\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1916\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Consisting of three end members:&nbsp;potassium feldspar (K-spar, KAlSi3O8), plagioclase with calcium (CaAl2Si2O8, called anorthite), and plagioclase with sodium (NaAlSi3O8, called albite). Commonly blocky, with two cleavages as ~90\u00b0. Plagioclase is typically more dull white and grey, and K-spar is more vibrant white, orange, or red. The most common mineral found within the crust, and a major component of almost all igneous rocks, some sedimentary rocks, and some metamorphic rocks. Structure is a three-dimensional framework of silica tetrahedra, with locations open for cations (K, Na, Ca).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1914\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1914\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>X1A2-3Z4O10(OH,\u202fF)2, where commonly X=K, Na, Ca; A=Al, Mg, Fe; Z=Si, Al. Has two more-common occurrences, light-colored (translucent and pearly tan) muscovite, and dark colored biotite. Has one strong cleavage, and is typically seen as sheets, in stacks or \"books.\" Common in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Structure is two-dimensional sheets of silica tetrahedra in a hexagonal netowork.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1924\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1924\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals made from just a single element, bonded to itself. Examples include gold, silver, copper, and diamond, which is a native version of carbon.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3348\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3348\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An ultramafic rock from deep volcanic vents that can contain diamonds.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1186\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1186\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Pipe that connects the magma chamber to the volcanic vent.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2586\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2586\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Middle chemical layer of the Earth, made of mainly iron and magnesium silicates. It is generally denser than the crust (except for older oceanic crust) and less dense than the core.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2205\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2205\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Eon defined as the time between 4 billion years ago to 2.5 billion years ago. Most of the oldest rocks on Earth, including large portions of the continents, formed at this time.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2190\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2190\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The largest span of time recognized by geologists, larger than an era. We are currently in the Phanerozoic eon. Rocks of a specific eon are called eonotherms.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1175\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1175\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The average change in temperature that is experienced as material moves into the Earth. Near the surface, this rate is about 25\u00b0C\/km.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2921\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2921\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Metamorphism which occurs with hot fluids going within rocks, altering and changing the rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3349\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3349\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Metallic mineral deposit which forms near mid-ocean ridges.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2922\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2922\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mineral chimneys that form at hydrothermal vents.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2630\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2630\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A divergent boundary within an oceanic plate, where new lithosphere and crust is created as the two plates spread apart. Mid-ocean ridge and spreading center are synonyms.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2218\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2218\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A term for the collective time before the Phanerozoic (pre-541 million years ago), including the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic. Known for a lack of easy-to-find fossils.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3350\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3350\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Large metallic mineral deposit that forms near magma bodies like plutons. Commonly contains copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1942\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1942\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An igneous rock with two distinctive crystal sizes. This is common in intrusive or extrusive rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2919\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2919\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Arrangement of minerals within a rock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1955\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1955\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A volcanic rock with medium silica composition, equally rich in felsic minerals (feldspar) and mafic minerals (amphibole, biotite, pyroxene). Intermediate rocks are grey in color and contain somewhat equal amounts of minerals that are light and dark in color. Primary intermediate rocks are andesite (extrusive) and diorite (intrusive).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1954\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1954\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Can refer to a volcanic rock with higher silica composition, or the minerals that make up those rocks, namely quartz, feldspar (both potassium feldspar and plagioclase feldspar), and muscovite mica. Felsic rocks are lighter in color and contain more minerals that are light in color, but can contain some biotite and amphibole. Primary felsic rocks are rhyolite (extrusive) and granite (intrusive).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1939\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1939\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Igneous rock cooling, and thus forming, inside of the Earth, i.e. under the surface.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2676\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2676\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Breaking down rocks into small pieces by chemical or mechanical means.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3351\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3351\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Oxidation that occurs in sulfide deposits which can concentrate valuable elements like copper.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2818\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2818\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Certain metallic elements (like iron) take in oxygen, causing reactions like rust.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1919\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1919\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals in which ions are bonded to oxygen, such as in ice, H2O.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3352\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3352\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Carbonate rock that reacts with hot magmatic fluids, creating concentrated ore deposits, which include copper, iron, zinc, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2709\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2709\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mineral group in which the silica tetrahedra, SiO4-4, is the building block.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2712\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2712\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>XY(Al,Si)2O6, in which X typically equals Na, Ca, Mg, or Fe and Y typically equals Mg, Fe, or Al. Typically black to dark green, blocky, with two cleavages at ~90\u00b0. Common in mafic igneous rocks and some metamorphic rocks. Structure is a single chain of silica tetrahedra.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2713\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2713\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>(RSi4O11)2, where R is a large number of different cations that can sub in. Can be many colors, but the common form, hornblende, is dark brown to black. Has two cleavages at 54\u00b0 and 126\u00b0. Crystals are typically elongated needles or diamond shapes. Common in many igneous rocks and some metamorphic rocks. Structure is a double chain of silica tetrahedra.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1921\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1921\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals bonded via a sulfur (S-2) atom.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2828\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2828\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The average diameter of a grain of sediment, ranging from small, also known as fine-grained (e.g. clay, silt) to large, also known as coarse-grained (e.g. boulder).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3353\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3353\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Low grade, broad deposits of microscopic gold found in sedimentary rocks with diagenetic alteration.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2958\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2958\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A piece of a rock that is caught up inside of another rock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2827\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2827\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Changes in sedimentary rocks due to increased (but low when compared to metamorphism) temperatures and pressures. This can include deposition of new minerals (e.g. limestone converting to dolomite) or dissolution of existing minerals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3116\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3116\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Empty space in a geologic material, either within sediments, or within rocks. Can be filled by air, water, or hydrocarbons.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3354\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3354\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Reactions that are related to the availability of oxygen. Many minerals or ions change their solubility based on redox conditions.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2664\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2664\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An interconnected set of parts that combine and make up a whole.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2848\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2848\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A sedimentary rock that formed long ago as free oxygen changed the solubility of iron, causing layers of iron rich and iron-poor sediments to form in thin layers, or bands.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2849\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2849\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A very fine grained version of silica deposited with or without microfossils.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2858\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2858\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific layer of rock with identifiable properties.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3164\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3164\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Original water trapped inside a forming rock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1463\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1463\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A local or regional depression which allows sediments to accumulate.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1461\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1461\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A down-warped feature in the crust.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3355\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3355\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Metallic mineral deposit of mainly lead and zinc from groundwater movements within sedimentary rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3134\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3134\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A channelled body of water.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3356\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3356\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Diagenetic copper deposit within sedimentary rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1203\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1203\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A type of non-eroded sediment mixed with organic matter, used by plants. Many essential elements for life, like nitrogen, are delivered to organisms via the soil.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3357\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3357\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A highly weathered soil deposit that consists of aluminum ores.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2817\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2817\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Carbonate rocks which dissolve, leaving behind caverns and holes which affect the landscape.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2812\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2812\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Breaking down of mineral material via chemical methods, like dissolution and oxidation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2829\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2829\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The range of sediment sizes within a sediment or sediment within sedimentary rocks. Well sorted means the sediment has the same sizes, poorly sorted means many different sizes are present.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2175\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2175\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>ZrSiO4.&nbsp;Relatively chemically inert with a hardness of 8.5. Common accessory mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks, as well as detrital sediments. Uranium can substitute for zirconium, making zircon a valuable mineral in radiometric dating.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2677\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2677\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The transport and movement of weathered sediments.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3359\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3359\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Toxic waters rich in heavy metals and often of low pH that come from unregulated mining districts.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1918\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1918\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>CaCO3. Pure form is clear, but can take on many different colors with impurities. It is soft, fizzes in acid, and has three cleavages that are not at 90\u00b0. Thus, it can form slanted blocks, though it is visually common to be without any structure. Found in many sedimentary rocks from marine settings, rarely in igneous rocks, in the metamorphic rock marble, but is common as a secondary mineral throughout surface rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1922\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1922\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals bonded via a sulfate ion, SO4-2.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2847\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2847\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Porous, concentric, or layered variety of carbonate that forms with often heated water in springs and\/or caves.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1962\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1962\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>General name of a felsic rock that is intrusive. Has more felsic minerals than mafic minerals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2926\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2926\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Metamorphic rock with a strong foliation but no visible minerals, derived from mudstones or shales.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2842\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2842\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A chemical sedimentary rock that forms as water evaporates.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_3177\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_3177\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Area where water infiltrates into the ground and adds to the overall groundwater.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2843\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2843\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An evaporite mineral, CaSo4\u20222H2O. Has one cleavage, hardness of 2. Typically clear or white.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_2844\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_2844\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Also known as rock salt, or table salt. 3 cleavages at 90\u00b0, cubic crystal habit. Typically clear or white, hardness of 3.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_971_1949\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_971_1949\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Volcanic tephra that is less than 2 mm in diameter.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":83,"menu_order":16,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[48],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-971","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/971","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/83"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/971\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3417,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/971\/revisions\/3417"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/971\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=971"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=971"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=971"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintrogeology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=971"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}