{"id":34,"date":"2023-11-13T16:09:01","date_gmt":"2023-11-13T16:09:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/chapter\/theoretical-foundations\/"},"modified":"2025-12-25T00:32:05","modified_gmt":"2025-12-25T00:32:05","slug":"theoretical-foundations","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/chapter\/theoretical-foundations\/","title":{"raw":"1.2: Theoretical Foundations","rendered":"1.2: Theoretical Foundations"},"content":{"raw":"<code><\/code>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" style=\"text-align: center\">Early Childhood Educators rely on theories to provide evidentiary support to their program goals, philosophies, and methods felt throughout their programs. While there are numerous theories, a few are highlighted in this chapter in how they relate to creating learning programs for young children.<\/div>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Cognitive Theory<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"section_1\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Jean Piaget explained learning as the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, as pointed out in, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are the main focus of Piaget\u2019s cognitive theory. After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition develops through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By stages, he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The stages always happen in the same order.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">No stage is ever skipped.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself. Basically, this is the \u201cstaircase\u201d model of development mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development and called them:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Sensorimotor Stage<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Preoperational Stage<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Concrete Operational Stage<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Formal Operational Stage<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nEach stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately. In Early Childhood Education, we primarily consider the first two stages as they are most common for children ages 0-8 years.\r\n<div id=\"section_2\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\r\n<h3 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\"><strong>The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">In Piaget\u2019s theory, the sensorimotor stage is first and is defined as the period when infants \u201cthink\u201d utilizing their senses and motor actions. As every new parent will attest, infants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even bite and chew objects. According to Piaget, these actions allow them to learn about the world and are crucial to their early cognitive development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure><img class=\"internal aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27924\/clipboard_e47ac00d99b35b587574ebc32cd76204e.png?revision=1\" alt=\"Infant in &quot;tummy time&quot; looking at toy, reaching with one hand\" width=\"292\" height=\"207\" \/><figcaption>Figure 2.3: Sensorimotor learning in action.[1]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">The infant\u2019s actions allow the child to represent (or construct simple concepts of) objects and events. A toy animal may be just a confusing array of sensations at first, but by looking, feeling, and manipulating it repeatedly, the child gradually organizes her sensations and actions into a stable concept, a toy animal. The representation acquires a permanence lacking in the individual experiences of the object, which are constantly changing. Because the representation is stable, the child \u201cknows\u201d, or at least believes, that the toy animal exists even if the actual toy animal is temporarily out of sight. Piaget called this sense of stability object permanence, a belief that objects exist whether or not they are present. It is a major achievement of sensorimotor development and marks a qualitative transformation in how older infants (24 months) think about experience compared to younger infants (6 months).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">During much of infancy, a child can only barely talk, so sensorimotor development initially happens without the support of language. It might, therefore, seem hard to know what infants are thinking, but Piaget devised several simple but clever experiments to get around their lack of language. Piaget\u2019s findings suggest that infants do indeed represent objects even without being able to talk (Piaget, 1952). In one, for example, he simply hid an object (such as a toy animal) under a blanket. He found that doing so consistently prompts older infants (18-24 months) to search for the object but fails to prompt younger infants (less than six months) to do so. (You can try this experiment yourself if you happen to have access to a young infant.) \u201cSomething\u201d motivates the search by the older infant even without the benefit of much language, and the \u201csomething\u201d is presumed to be a permanent concept or representation of the object.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_3\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\r\n<h3 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\"><strong>The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide variety of activities, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical. One of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition is dramatic play, the improvised make-believe of preschool children. If you have ever had responsibility for children of this age, you have likely witnessed such play. Ashley holds a plastic banana to her ear and says, \u201cHello, Mom? Can you be sure to bring me my baby doll? OK!\u201d Then she hangs up the banana and pours tea for Jeremy into an invisible cup. Jeremy giggles at the sight of all of this and exclaims, \u201cRinnng! Oh, Ashley, the phone is ringing again! You better answer it.\u201d And on it goes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Children immersed in make-believe may seem to have an inaccurate understanding of the world in that they do not think realistically. But at some level, Ashley and Jeremy always know that the banana is still a banana and not really a telephone; they are merely representing it as a telephone. They are thinking on two levels at once\u2014one imaginative and the other realistic. This dual processing of experience makes dramatic play an early example of metacognition, or reflecting on and monitoring of thinking itself. As we explained previously, metacognition is a highly desirable skill for success in school, one that teachers often encourage (Bredekamp &amp; Copple, 1997; Paley, 2005). Partly for this reason, teachers of young children (preschool, kindergarten, and even first or second grade) often make time and space in their classrooms for dramatic play and sometimes even participate in it themselves to help develop the play further.[2]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure>[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"249\"]<img class=\"internal\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27925\/clipboard_eb35504ec499038b17fd38613932df3d7.png?revision=1\" alt=\"Two children playing, one child is in doctor dress-up, holding a stethoscope toward the other child\" width=\"249\" height=\"303\" \/> Figure 1.4: Children engaged in make-believe play.[3][\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"box-note\">\r\n<div class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Pause to Reflect<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">As a lab school, students often visit children\u2019s classrooms to observe the environments and interactions to connect theory with practice. One day, I decided to take a small group of students to observe the environment in one of our preschool classrooms. As we opened the door, I heard a young child (age 3 years) say to her teacher, \u201cWhy are all the mommies here?\u201d The teacher acknowledged the child\u2019s observation but explained that the visitors were there to learn about the classroom. The child continued to watch us as we walked through the classroom.<i><sup>\u00a0[4]<\/sup><\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">How does this example provide evidence of Piaget\u2019s Cognitive Theory?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Children grow and develop through stages, and so does their play. Children\u2019s earliest play experiences are highly sensory-driven and include simple exchanges with caregivers and materials within their environment. Many of the early play experiences promote a sense of discovery and lead to positive interactions among children and adult caregivers. As the child develops, more complex play develops, too. Infants observe and interact with materials through the use of the five senses. As the infant develops, he or she continues to observe, explore, and experiment with materials within the environment, thus obtaining knowledge.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Sociocultural Theory<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_4\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<p class=\"indent\" data-start=\"108\" data-end=\"765\">Lev Vygotsky (1978) emphasized how a child\u2019s or novice\u2019s thinking is shaped by interactions with more capable, knowledgeable, or expert individuals. He proposed that learners perform better when guided by an expert than when working alone, though still not as well as the expert. For instance, someone new to chess would likely play more effectively with help from an expert than independently. Vygotsky termed the gap between solo and assisted performance the <em data-start=\"569\" data-end=\"599\">zone of proximal development<\/em> (ZPD)\u2014the area where immediate growth can occur. From a social constructivist view, learning is essentially a form of assisted performance (Tharp &amp; Gallimore, 1991).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" data-start=\"767\" data-end=\"1243\">In the learning process, knowledge or skill initially resides in the expert. A skilled and motivated expert arranges experiences that help the novice practice essential skills or build new understanding, much like a coach who guides an athlete without performing the task themselves. Over time, through continued support aligned with the learner\u2019s growing abilities, the novice gradually internalizes and masters the skills or knowledge that once belonged solely to the expert. [5]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_5\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Psychosocial Theory<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Erik Erikson suggested that our relationships and society\u2019s expectations motivate much of our behavior. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or a crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living.[6]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">In planning a developmentally appropriate curriculum, Erikson\u2019s stages can be used as inspiration for interactions between children, children and adults (teachers\/caregivers), and for emphasizing quality environments, which promote trust, autonomy, initiative, and industrious interactions.[7]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table class=\"grid aligncenter\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"><caption>Table 1.1 -\u00a0<b>Erik Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/b><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">\r\n<p class=\"mt-align-center lt-socialsci-39260\">Name of Stage<\/p>\r\n<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">\r\n<p class=\"mt-align-center lt-socialsci-39260\">Description of Stage<\/p>\r\n<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Trust vs. mistrust (0-1)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The infant must have basic needs met consistently to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom; they like to exercise, and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things \u201call by myself.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Industry vs. inferiority (6-11)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">School-aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">In our 20s and 30s, we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">In the 40s through the early 60s, we focus on being productive at work and home, and are motivated by wanting to feel that we\u2019ve contributed to society.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"198\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"426\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see, that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_6\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Behavioral Theory<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">In classrooms, behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between specific actions by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences of the actions. It is less useful for understanding changes in students\u2019 thinking; for this purpose, we need theories that are more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) or social, like the ones described later in this chapter. This fact is not a criticism of behaviorism as a perspective, but just a clarification of its particular strength or usefulness, which is to highlight observable relationships among actions, precursors, and consequences. Behaviorists use particular terms (or \u201clingo,\u201d some might say) for these relationships. One variety of Behaviorism that has proved especially useful to educators is operant conditioning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"section_7\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<h3><span id=\"Operant_conditioning:_New_Behaviors_Because_of_New_Consequences\"><\/span><strong>Operant Conditioning: New Behaviors Because of New Consequences<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior affect the behavior over time. It begins with the idea that certain consequences tend to make certain behaviors happen more frequently. If I compliment a student for a good comment made during discussion, there is more of a chance that I will hear further comments from the student in the future (and hopefully they too will be good ones!). If a student tells a joke to classmates and they laugh at it, then the student is likely to tell more jokes in the future, and so on.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The original research about this model of learning was not done with people but with animals. One of the pioneers in the field was a Harvard professor named B. F. Skinner, who published numerous books and articles about the details of the process and who pointed out many parallels between operant conditioning in animals and operant conditioning in humans (1938, 1948, 1988). Skinner observed the behavior of rather tame laboratory rats (not the unpleasant kind that sometimes live in garbage dumps). He or his assistants would put them in a cage that contained little except a lever and a small tray just big enough to hold a small amount of food. At first, the rat would sniff and \u201cputter around\u201d the cage at random, but sooner or later, it would happen upon the lever and eventually happen to press it. Presto! The lever released a small pellet of food, which the rat would promptly eat. Gradually, the rat would spend more time near the lever and press the lever more frequently, getting food more frequently. Eventually, it would spend most of its time at the lever and eating its fill of food. The rat had \u201cdiscovered\u201d that the consequence of pressing the lever was to receive food. Skinner called the changes in the rat\u2019s behavior an example of operant conditioning and gave special names to the different parts of the process. He called the food pellets the reinforcement and the lever-pressing the operant (because it \u201coperated\u201d on the rat\u2019s environment).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_8\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\r\n<h3 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\"><strong>Operant Conditioning and Student Learning<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Since the original research about operant conditioning used animals, it is important to ask whether operant conditioning also describes learning in human beings, especially in students in classrooms. On this point, the answer seems to be clearly \u201cyes.\u201d There are countless classroom examples of consequences affecting students\u2019 behavior in ways that resemble operant conditioning, although the process certainly does not account for all forms of student learning (Alberto &amp; Troutman, 2005). Consider the following examples. In most of them, the operant behavior tends to become more frequent on repeated occasions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">A kindergarten child raises her hand in response to the teacher\u2019s question about a story (the operant). The teacher calls on her, and she makes her comment (the reinforcement).<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Another kindergarten child blurts out her comment without being called on (the operant). The teacher frowns, ignores this behavior, but before the teacher calls on a different student, classmates are listening attentively (the reinforcement) to the student, even though he did not raise his hand as he should have.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">A child who is usually very restless sits for five minutes during group time (the operant). The teacher compliments him for working hard (the reinforcement).[8]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<figure>[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"311\"]<img class=\"internal\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27927\/clipboard_e3867e49b1d4f823f851ec008d971dcf0.png?revision=1\" alt=\"clipboard_e3867e49b1d4f823f851ec008d971dcf0.png\" width=\"311\" height=\"207\" \/> Figure 1.5: Operant conditioning is often used during large group times.[9][\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Behavioral Theory is most visible in an ECE classroom through modeling of expected behavior, reinforcing the pro-social behavior expected, and through the daily routines and schedules. (See Environments, Chapter 5 for further review of routines).[10]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_9\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Multiple Intelligences Theory<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Howard Gardner, a researcher, has studied the mind and created a theory called the Multiple Intelligences Theory. The theory represents the idea that children are individuals with a variety of strengths in different intelligences and states that one\u2019s intelligence is not better than another's intelligence Teachers can use this theory to create a curriculum to respect the individual way in which children process information and provide experiences that allow children to engage in all the intelligences.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The intelligences include:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Verbal-Linguistic: Ability to use language well<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Logical-Mathematical: Ability to reason<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Musical-Rhythmic: Ability to create and understand music<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Visual-Spatial: Ability to imagine and manipulate the arrangement of objects in the environment<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Bodily-Kinesthetic: Sense of balance and coordination in the use of one\u2019s body<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Interpersonal: Ability to discern others' thoughts and feelings and understand and interact effectively with others<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Intrapersonal: Sensitivity to one\u2019s thoughts and feelings<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Naturalist: Sensitivity to subtle differences and patterns in the natural environment<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Existential (still under study): Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence[11]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<figure>[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"496\"]<img class=\"internal\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27928\/clipboard_e0688238becc86d51fa6c8a555f960d1d.png?revision=1\" alt=\"clipboard_e0688238becc86d51fa6c8a555f960d1d.png\" width=\"496\" height=\"493\" \/> Figure 1.6: Multiple Intelligences. [12][\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_10\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Additional Considerations: Learning Styles<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Children are unique and learn at their own pace in their own way. One size does not fit all, and learning styles and preferences vary. In a group of children, a teacher can encounter children who learn best through visual, auditory, or hands-on interactions. Sometimes, a child may learn best in a particular domain or area with one style and with a different style in another domain or area.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Implications for teachers include identifying the child\u2019s style of learning and creating a program for learning that reflects the variety of learning styles present in a classroom. It\u2019s important to offer learning experiences in all styles, which is referred to as multimodal.[13]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table class=\"grid aligncenter\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"><caption>Table 1.2: Learning Styles<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" width=\"138\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" align=\"center\"><b>Learning Styles<\/b><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" width=\"486\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" align=\"center\"><b>Learning Preferences<\/b><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"138\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\"><b>Visual<\/b><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" width=\"486\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Pictures, real-life objects to visually examine, and seeing someone model a skill<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"138\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\"><b>Auditory<\/b><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" width=\"486\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Listening, songs, rhymes, stories, chants<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" width=\"138\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\"><b>Tactile\/kinesthetic<\/b><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" width=\"486\">\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Gestures, body movements, hands-on manipulation, and active exploration<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"section_11\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<div id=\"section_11\" class=\"mt-section\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Check your knowledge<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nAfter reading this chapter, complete the <strong>crossword puzzle<\/strong>. Scan the chapter for the clues.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Read clues and write the corresponding words into the grid<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ensure the letters for \"across\" and \"down\" clues intersect correctly<\/li>\r\n \t<li>This is a low-stakes assessment (no pressure) but have fun!!!<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n[h5p id=\"4\"]\r\n<h2 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\">References<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[1]\u00a0Image\u00a0by the\u00a0California Department of Education\u00a0is used with permission<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[2]\u00a0Educational Psychology\u00a0by Kelvin Seifert (OpenStax) is licensed under\u00a0CC BY-3.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[3]\u00a0Image\u00a0by the\u00a0California Department of Education\u00a0is used with permission<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[4]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[5]\u00a0Educational Psychology\u00a0by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, which is licensed under\u00a0CC BY<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[6]\u00a0Psychosocial Theory\u00a0by\u00a0Lumen Learning\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[7]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[8]\u00a0Educational Psychology\u00a0by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, which is licensed under\u00a0CC BY<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[9]\u00a0Image\u00a0by\u00a0Dave Parker\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 2.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[10]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[11]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve and Jennifer Paris is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0; Educational Psychology\u00a0by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, which is licensed under\u00a0CC BY; Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences\u00a0by\u00a0OneCommunity\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 3.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[12] Multiple Intelligences by\u00a0Sajaganesandip\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY-SA 4.0<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[13]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0;<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">College Success by Lumen Learning references\u00a0Learning Styles\u00a0by Wikipedia, licensed under\u00a0CC BY-SA<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<footer class=\"mt-content-footer\">\r\n\r\n<hr class=\"autoattribution-divider\" \/>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"autoattribution\">\r\n\r\nThis page titled\u00a01.2: Theoretical Foundations\u00a0is shared under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\">CC BY\u00a0<\/a>license and was authored, remixed, and\/or curated by Erin Jones, EdS, ECSE, MBA.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/footer><\/div>","rendered":"<p><code><\/code><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" style=\"text-align: center\">Early Childhood Educators rely on theories to provide evidentiary support to their program goals, philosophies, and methods felt throughout their programs. While there are numerous theories, a few are highlighted in this chapter in how they relate to creating learning programs for young children.<\/div>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Cognitive Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<div id=\"section_1\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Jean Piaget explained learning as the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, as pointed out in, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are the main focus of Piaget\u2019s cognitive theory. After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition develops through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By stages, he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The stages always happen in the same order.<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">No stage is ever skipped.<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself. Basically, this is the \u201cstaircase\u201d model of development mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development and called them:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Sensorimotor Stage<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Preoperational Stage<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Concrete Operational Stage<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Formal Operational Stage<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately. In Early Childhood Education, we primarily consider the first two stages as they are most common for children ages 0-8 years.<\/p>\n<div id=\"section_2\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\n<h3 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\"><strong>The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">In Piaget\u2019s theory, the sensorimotor stage is first and is defined as the period when infants \u201cthink\u201d utilizing their senses and motor actions. As every new parent will attest, infants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even bite and chew objects. According to Piaget, these actions allow them to learn about the world and are crucial to their early cognitive development.<\/p>\n<figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"internal aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27924\/clipboard_e47ac00d99b35b587574ebc32cd76204e.png?revision=1\" alt=\"Infant in &quot;tummy time&quot; looking at toy, reaching with one hand\" width=\"292\" height=\"207\" \/><figcaption>Figure 2.3: Sensorimotor learning in action.[1]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">The infant\u2019s actions allow the child to represent (or construct simple concepts of) objects and events. A toy animal may be just a confusing array of sensations at first, but by looking, feeling, and manipulating it repeatedly, the child gradually organizes her sensations and actions into a stable concept, a toy animal. The representation acquires a permanence lacking in the individual experiences of the object, which are constantly changing. Because the representation is stable, the child \u201cknows\u201d, or at least believes, that the toy animal exists even if the actual toy animal is temporarily out of sight. Piaget called this sense of stability object permanence, a belief that objects exist whether or not they are present. It is a major achievement of sensorimotor development and marks a qualitative transformation in how older infants (24 months) think about experience compared to younger infants (6 months).<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">During much of infancy, a child can only barely talk, so sensorimotor development initially happens without the support of language. It might, therefore, seem hard to know what infants are thinking, but Piaget devised several simple but clever experiments to get around their lack of language. Piaget\u2019s findings suggest that infants do indeed represent objects even without being able to talk (Piaget, 1952). In one, for example, he simply hid an object (such as a toy animal) under a blanket. He found that doing so consistently prompts older infants (18-24 months) to search for the object but fails to prompt younger infants (less than six months) to do so. (You can try this experiment yourself if you happen to have access to a young infant.) \u201cSomething\u201d motivates the search by the older infant even without the benefit of much language, and the \u201csomething\u201d is presumed to be a permanent concept or representation of the object.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_3\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\n<h3 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\"><strong>The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide variety of activities, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical. One of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition is dramatic play, the improvised make-believe of preschool children. If you have ever had responsibility for children of this age, you have likely witnessed such play. Ashley holds a plastic banana to her ear and says, \u201cHello, Mom? Can you be sure to bring me my baby doll? OK!\u201d Then she hangs up the banana and pours tea for Jeremy into an invisible cup. Jeremy giggles at the sight of all of this and exclaims, \u201cRinnng! Oh, Ashley, the phone is ringing again! You better answer it.\u201d And on it goes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Children immersed in make-believe may seem to have an inaccurate understanding of the world in that they do not think realistically. But at some level, Ashley and Jeremy always know that the banana is still a banana and not really a telephone; they are merely representing it as a telephone. They are thinking on two levels at once\u2014one imaginative and the other realistic. This dual processing of experience makes dramatic play an early example of metacognition, or reflecting on and monitoring of thinking itself. As we explained previously, metacognition is a highly desirable skill for success in school, one that teachers often encourage (Bredekamp &amp; Copple, 1997; Paley, 2005). Partly for this reason, teachers of young children (preschool, kindergarten, and even first or second grade) often make time and space in their classrooms for dramatic play and sometimes even participate in it themselves to help develop the play further.[2]<\/p>\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 249px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"internal\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27925\/clipboard_eb35504ec499038b17fd38613932df3d7.png?revision=1\" alt=\"Two children playing, one child is in doctor dress-up, holding a stethoscope toward the other child\" width=\"249\" height=\"303\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1.4: Children engaged in make-believe play.[3]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"box-note\">\n<div class=\"mt-section\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Pause to Reflect<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">As a lab school, students often visit children\u2019s classrooms to observe the environments and interactions to connect theory with practice. One day, I decided to take a small group of students to observe the environment in one of our preschool classrooms. As we opened the door, I heard a young child (age 3 years) say to her teacher, \u201cWhy are all the mommies here?\u201d The teacher acknowledged the child\u2019s observation but explained that the visitors were there to learn about the classroom. The child continued to watch us as we walked through the classroom.<i><sup>\u00a0[4]<\/sup><\/i><\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">How does this example provide evidence of Piaget\u2019s Cognitive Theory?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Children grow and develop through stages, and so does their play. Children\u2019s earliest play experiences are highly sensory-driven and include simple exchanges with caregivers and materials within their environment. Many of the early play experiences promote a sense of discovery and lead to positive interactions among children and adult caregivers. As the child develops, more complex play develops, too. Infants observe and interact with materials through the use of the five senses. As the infant develops, he or she continues to observe, explore, and experiment with materials within the environment, thus obtaining knowledge.<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Sociocultural Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_4\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<p class=\"indent\" data-start=\"108\" data-end=\"765\">Lev Vygotsky (1978) emphasized how a child\u2019s or novice\u2019s thinking is shaped by interactions with more capable, knowledgeable, or expert individuals. He proposed that learners perform better when guided by an expert than when working alone, though still not as well as the expert. For instance, someone new to chess would likely play more effectively with help from an expert than independently. Vygotsky termed the gap between solo and assisted performance the <em data-start=\"569\" data-end=\"599\">zone of proximal development<\/em> (ZPD)\u2014the area where immediate growth can occur. From a social constructivist view, learning is essentially a form of assisted performance (Tharp &amp; Gallimore, 1991).<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" data-start=\"767\" data-end=\"1243\">In the learning process, knowledge or skill initially resides in the expert. A skilled and motivated expert arranges experiences that help the novice practice essential skills or build new understanding, much like a coach who guides an athlete without performing the task themselves. Over time, through continued support aligned with the learner\u2019s growing abilities, the novice gradually internalizes and masters the skills or knowledge that once belonged solely to the expert. [5]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_5\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Psychosocial Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Erik Erikson suggested that our relationships and society\u2019s expectations motivate much of our behavior. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or a crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living.[6]<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">In planning a developmentally appropriate curriculum, Erikson\u2019s stages can be used as inspiration for interactions between children, children and adults (teachers\/caregivers), and for emphasizing quality environments, which promote trust, autonomy, initiative, and industrious interactions.[7]<\/p>\n<table class=\"grid aligncenter\" cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<caption>Table 1.1 &#8211;\u00a0<b>Erik Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/b><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">\n<p class=\"mt-align-center lt-socialsci-39260\">Name of Stage<\/p>\n<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">\n<p class=\"mt-align-center lt-socialsci-39260\">Description of Stage<\/p>\n<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Trust vs. mistrust (0-1)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The infant must have basic needs met consistently to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom; they like to exercise, and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things \u201call by myself.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Industry vs. inferiority (6-11)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">School-aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">In our 20s and 30s, we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">In the 40s through the early 60s, we focus on being productive at work and home, and are motivated by wanting to feel that we\u2019ve contributed to society.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Name of Stage\" style=\"width: 198px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" data-th=\"Description of Stage\" style=\"width: 426px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see, that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_6\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Behavioral Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">In classrooms, behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between specific actions by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences of the actions. It is less useful for understanding changes in students\u2019 thinking; for this purpose, we need theories that are more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) or social, like the ones described later in this chapter. This fact is not a criticism of behaviorism as a perspective, but just a clarification of its particular strength or usefulness, which is to highlight observable relationships among actions, precursors, and consequences. Behaviorists use particular terms (or \u201clingo,\u201d some might say) for these relationships. One variety of Behaviorism that has proved especially useful to educators is operant conditioning.<\/p>\n<div id=\"section_7\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<h3><span id=\"Operant_conditioning:_New_Behaviors_Because_of_New_Consequences\"><\/span><strong>Operant Conditioning: New Behaviors Because of New Consequences<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior affect the behavior over time. It begins with the idea that certain consequences tend to make certain behaviors happen more frequently. If I compliment a student for a good comment made during discussion, there is more of a chance that I will hear further comments from the student in the future (and hopefully they too will be good ones!). If a student tells a joke to classmates and they laugh at it, then the student is likely to tell more jokes in the future, and so on.<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The original research about this model of learning was not done with people but with animals. One of the pioneers in the field was a Harvard professor named B. F. Skinner, who published numerous books and articles about the details of the process and who pointed out many parallels between operant conditioning in animals and operant conditioning in humans (1938, 1948, 1988). Skinner observed the behavior of rather tame laboratory rats (not the unpleasant kind that sometimes live in garbage dumps). He or his assistants would put them in a cage that contained little except a lever and a small tray just big enough to hold a small amount of food. At first, the rat would sniff and \u201cputter around\u201d the cage at random, but sooner or later, it would happen upon the lever and eventually happen to press it. Presto! The lever released a small pellet of food, which the rat would promptly eat. Gradually, the rat would spend more time near the lever and press the lever more frequently, getting food more frequently. Eventually, it would spend most of its time at the lever and eating its fill of food. The rat had \u201cdiscovered\u201d that the consequence of pressing the lever was to receive food. Skinner called the changes in the rat\u2019s behavior an example of operant conditioning and gave special names to the different parts of the process. He called the food pellets the reinforcement and the lever-pressing the operant (because it \u201coperated\u201d on the rat\u2019s environment).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_8\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\n<h3 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\"><strong>Operant Conditioning and Student Learning<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Since the original research about operant conditioning used animals, it is important to ask whether operant conditioning also describes learning in human beings, especially in students in classrooms. On this point, the answer seems to be clearly \u201cyes.\u201d There are countless classroom examples of consequences affecting students\u2019 behavior in ways that resemble operant conditioning, although the process certainly does not account for all forms of student learning (Alberto &amp; Troutman, 2005). Consider the following examples. In most of them, the operant behavior tends to become more frequent on repeated occasions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">A kindergarten child raises her hand in response to the teacher\u2019s question about a story (the operant). The teacher calls on her, and she makes her comment (the reinforcement).<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Another kindergarten child blurts out her comment without being called on (the operant). The teacher frowns, ignores this behavior, but before the teacher calls on a different student, classmates are listening attentively (the reinforcement) to the student, even though he did not raise his hand as he should have.<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">A child who is usually very restless sits for five minutes during group time (the operant). The teacher compliments him for working hard (the reinforcement).[8]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 311px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"internal\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27927\/clipboard_e3867e49b1d4f823f851ec008d971dcf0.png?revision=1\" alt=\"clipboard_e3867e49b1d4f823f851ec008d971dcf0.png\" width=\"311\" height=\"207\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1.5: Operant conditioning is often used during large group times.[9]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The Behavioral Theory is most visible in an ECE classroom through modeling of expected behavior, reinforcing the pro-social behavior expected, and through the daily routines and schedules. (See Environments, Chapter 5 for further review of routines).[10]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_9\" class=\"mt-section\" style=\"text-align: center\">\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Multiple Intelligences Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Howard Gardner, a researcher, has studied the mind and created a theory called the Multiple Intelligences Theory. The theory represents the idea that children are individuals with a variety of strengths in different intelligences and states that one\u2019s intelligence is not better than another&#8217;s intelligence Teachers can use this theory to create a curriculum to respect the individual way in which children process information and provide experiences that allow children to engage in all the intelligences.<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">The intelligences include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Verbal-Linguistic: Ability to use language well<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Logical-Mathematical: Ability to reason<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Musical-Rhythmic: Ability to create and understand music<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Visual-Spatial: Ability to imagine and manipulate the arrangement of objects in the environment<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Bodily-Kinesthetic: Sense of balance and coordination in the use of one\u2019s body<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Interpersonal: Ability to discern others&#8217; thoughts and feelings and understand and interact effectively with others<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Intrapersonal: Sensitivity to one\u2019s thoughts and feelings<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Naturalist: Sensitivity to subtle differences and patterns in the natural environment<\/li>\n<li class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: left\">Existential (still under study): Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence[11]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 496px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"internal\" src=\"https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/@api\/deki\/files\/27928\/clipboard_e0688238becc86d51fa6c8a555f960d1d.png?revision=1\" alt=\"clipboard_e0688238becc86d51fa6c8a555f960d1d.png\" width=\"496\" height=\"493\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1.6: Multiple Intelligences. [12]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_10\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: 'Cormorant Garamond', serif;font-size: 1.602em;font-weight: bold\">Additional Considerations: Learning Styles<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Children are unique and learn at their own pace in their own way. One size does not fit all, and learning styles and preferences vary. In a group of children, a teacher can encounter children who learn best through visual, auditory, or hands-on interactions. Sometimes, a child may learn best in a particular domain or area with one style and with a different style in another domain or area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 indent\">Implications for teachers include identifying the child\u2019s style of learning and creating a program for learning that reflects the variety of learning styles present in a classroom. It\u2019s important to offer learning experiences in all styles, which is referred to as multimodal.[13]<\/p>\n<table class=\"grid aligncenter\" cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<caption>Table 1.2: Learning Styles<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><b>Learning Styles<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 486px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><b>Learning Preferences<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"width: 138px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\"><b>Visual<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 486px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Pictures, real-life objects to visually examine, and seeing someone model a skill<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"width: 138px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\"><b>Auditory<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 486px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Listening, songs, rhymes, stories, chants<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" style=\"width: 138px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\"><b>Tactile\/kinesthetic<\/b><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-noheading lt-socialsci-39260\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 486px;\">\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">Gestures, body movements, hands-on manipulation, and active exploration<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"section_11\" class=\"mt-section\">\n<div class=\"mt-section\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Check your knowledge<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>After reading this chapter, complete the <strong>crossword puzzle<\/strong>. Scan the chapter for the clues.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Read clues and write the corresponding words into the grid<\/li>\n<li>Ensure the letters for &#8220;across&#8221; and &#8220;down&#8221; clues intersect correctly<\/li>\n<li>This is a low-stakes assessment (no pressure) but have fun!!!<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"h5p-4\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-4\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"4\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Early Childhood Theorists\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"lt-socialsci-39260 editable\">References<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[1]\u00a0Image\u00a0by the\u00a0California Department of Education\u00a0is used with permission<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[2]\u00a0Educational Psychology\u00a0by Kelvin Seifert (OpenStax) is licensed under\u00a0CC BY-3.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[3]\u00a0Image\u00a0by the\u00a0California Department of Education\u00a0is used with permission<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[4]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[5]\u00a0Educational Psychology\u00a0by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, which is licensed under\u00a0CC BY<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[6]\u00a0Psychosocial Theory\u00a0by\u00a0Lumen Learning\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[7]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[8]\u00a0Educational Psychology\u00a0by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, which is licensed under\u00a0CC BY<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[9]\u00a0Image\u00a0by\u00a0Dave Parker\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 2.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[10]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[11]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve and Jennifer Paris is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0; Educational Psychology\u00a0by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, which is licensed under\u00a0CC BY; Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences\u00a0by\u00a0OneCommunity\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 3.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[12] Multiple Intelligences by\u00a0Sajaganesandip\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0CC BY-SA 4.0<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">[13]\u00a0Content by Kristin Beeve is licensed under\u00a0CC BY 4.0;<\/p>\n<p class=\"lt-socialsci-39260\">College Success by Lumen Learning references\u00a0Learning Styles\u00a0by Wikipedia, licensed under\u00a0CC BY-SA<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<footer class=\"mt-content-footer\">\n<hr class=\"autoattribution-divider\" \/>\n<div class=\"autoattribution\">\n<p>This page titled\u00a01.2: Theoretical Foundations\u00a0is shared under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\">CC BY\u00a0<\/a>license and was authored, remixed, and\/or curated by Erin Jones, EdS, ECSE, MBA.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/footer>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":154,"menu_order":2,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["s02871427"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[48],"contributor":[62],"license":[],"class_list":["post-34","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless","contributor-s02871427"],"part":330,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/34","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/154"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=34"}],"version-history":[{"count":37,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/34\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1581,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/34\/revisions\/1581"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/330"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/34\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=34"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=34"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=34"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accintroductiontoece\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=34"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}