Bulging Veins<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhy do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.\r\n\r\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"5927\"]cardiovascular system[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.\r\nArteries<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.\r\n\r\nThe largest artery in the body is the [pb_glossary id=\"4413\"]aorta<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary], which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4453\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"]![\"14.4.2](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Arterial_System_en.svg_-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nVeins<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4465\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"759\"]![\"14.4.3](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Skeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump-2.jpg\")
Figure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4466\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]![\"14.4.4](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Venous_valve_00013-2.gif\")
Figure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nMost veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4467\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"339\"]![\"14.4.5](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Superior-and-Inferior-Vena-Cava-from-Freestockphotos.biz-adapted-by-CMiller-Public-Domain-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior [pb_glossary id=\"4410\"]vena cava[\/pb_glossary] \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4468\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"]![\"14.4.6](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Venous_system_en.svg_-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nCapillaries<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4469\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"638\"]![\"Figure](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed-2.jpg\")
Figure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4471\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"390\"]![\"14.4.8](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Artery-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.\r\nWalls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.\r\n\r\n \t- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4473\"]tunica intima[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4474\"]tunica media[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4475\"]tunica externa[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4477\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"732\"]
![\"14.4.8\"](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Blausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4478\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"]![\"14.4.9](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Artery-Vein-Capillary-Comparison-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.\r\n\r\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood's friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.\r\n\r\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"]![\"14.4.10](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Varicose-veins-2.jpg\")
Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"]![\"14.4.11](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2023\/10\/Varicose_veins-en.svg_-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\n![\"14.4.1](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/acchumanbio\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/152\/2019\/06\/bodybuilding_PNG24-2.png\")
Figure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Types of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"5927\"]cardiovascular system[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.\r\nArteries<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.\r\n\r\nThe largest artery in the body is the [pb_glossary id=\"4413\"]aorta<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary], which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4453\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nVeins<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4465\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"759\"] Figure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4466\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"] Figure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nMost veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4467\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"339\"] Figure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior [pb_glossary id=\"4410\"]vena cava[\/pb_glossary] \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4468\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nCapillaries<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4469\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"638\"] Figure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4471\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"390\"] Figure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.\r\nWalls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.\r\n\r\n \t- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4473\"]tunica intima[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4474\"]tunica media[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4475\"]tunica externa[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4477\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"732\"] Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n
Capillary Walls<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4478\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.\r\n\r\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood's friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.\r\n\r\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Figure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nVeins<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4465\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"759\"] Figure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4466\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"] Figure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nMost veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4467\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"339\"] Figure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior [pb_glossary id=\"4410\"]vena cava[\/pb_glossary] \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4468\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nCapillaries<\/h2>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4469\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"638\"] Figure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4471\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"390\"] Figure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.\r\nWalls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.\r\n\r\n \t- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4473\"]tunica intima[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4474\"]tunica media[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4475\"]tunica externa[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4477\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"732\"] Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n
Capillary Walls<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4478\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.\r\n\r\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood's friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.\r\n\r\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Figure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4471\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"390\"] Figure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.\r\nWalls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.\r\n\r\n \t- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4473\"]tunica intima[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4474\"]tunica media[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4475\"]tunica externa[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4477\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"732\"] Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n
Capillary Walls<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4478\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.\r\n\r\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood's friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.\r\n\r\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\r\nThe walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4478\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"] Figure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.\r\n\r\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood's friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.\r\n\r\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Blood Pressure<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.\r\n\r\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood's friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.\r\n\r\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSmooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]blood pressure[\/pb_glossary]. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.\r\n\r\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary], under control of the [pb_glossary id=\"3015\"]sympathetic\u00a0nervous system[\/pb_glossary]. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.\r\n\r\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Feature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4481\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"391\"] Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4482\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"476\"] Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n\r\n \t- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\n \t- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\nReferences<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBetts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\nBlausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\nCleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\nArteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\nThe largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nVeins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nFigure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThe two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nStructure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nAll blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
\n- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nCapillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\nFigure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\nAs arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\nArteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\nFigure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
\n- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
\n14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n\n\n- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
Figure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nVaricose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.\r\n\r\nIf you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.\r\n- \r\n \t
- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\r\n \t
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n
\r\n 14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n
\r\n- \r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5835\"]Blood vessels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4385\"]Arteries[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4386\"]Veins[\/pb_glossary] are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"5923\"]Capillaries[\/pb_glossary] are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\r\n \t
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"4480\"]Blood pressure[\/pb_glossary] is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [pb_glossary id=\"3942\"]Vasoconstriction[\/pb_glossary] (narrowing) and [pb_glossary id=\"2756\"]vasodilation[\/pb_glossary] (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the [pb_glossary id=\"6013\"]fight-or-flight response[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n 14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n
\r\n- \r\n \t
- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\r\n \t
- [h5p id=\"614\"]<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins.<\/li>\r\n \t
- What are capillaries, and what is their function?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very thin.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n 14.4 Explore More<\/span><\/h1>\r\n<\/header>\r\n
\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/Ab9OZsDECZw\r\nHow blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano, TED-Ed, 2015.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI\r\n
What are Varicose Veins? Cleveland Clinic, 2019.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o\r\n
Arteries vs Veins ( Circulatory System ), MooMooMath and Science, 2018.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
Attributions<\/h2>\r\nFigure 14.4.1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nbodybuilding_PNG24<\/a> from pngimg.com<\/a> is used under a\u00a0CC BY-NC <\/a>4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSkeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.4<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_valve_00013<\/a> by Nevit Dilmen<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.5<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuperior and Inferior Vena Cava<\/a> by ArtFavor<\/a> (acquired from\u00a0OCAL)<\/a> from Freestockphotos.biz<\/a>, is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/). Work adapted by Christine Miller.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.6<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVenous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats]<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain<\/a> (https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.7<\/strong>\r\n\r\n1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by OpenStax College<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.8<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery<\/a> by Lord of Konrad<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0<\/a> Universal public domain dedication license (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/).\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.9<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBlausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by BruceBlaus<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0) license.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.10<\/strong>\r\n\r\nArtery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by Christinelmiller<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.11<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose-veins<\/a> by Jackerhack<\/a>\u00a0at\u00a0English Wikipedia<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5) license.\r\n\r\nFigure 14.4.12<\/strong>\r\n\r\nVaricose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by Jmarchn<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 <\/a>(https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license. [Work modified from Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)]<\/a>\r\n
References<\/h2>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). <\/span>Figure\u00a0<\/span><\/span>20.6<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Capillary bed [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.1). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-1-structure-and-function-of-blood-vessels<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, June 19). Figure <\/span><\/span>20.15<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Skeletal muscle pump [digital image].\u00a0 In Anatomy and Physiology<\/em> (Section 20.2). OpenStax. https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/anatomy-and-physiology\/pages\/20-2-blood-flow-blood-pressure-and-resistance<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n
Blausen.com Staff. (2014). Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014. WikiJournal of Medicine 1<\/em> (2). DOI:10.15347\/wjm\/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.<\/p>\r\n
Cleveland Clinic. (2019, December 30). What are varicose veins? YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Wf8bLXVwFI&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
MooMooMath and Science. (2018, April 5). Arteries vs veins ( Circulatory System ). YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hnjMdXSyA5o&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n
TED-Ed. (2015, July 23). How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano. YouTube. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw&feature=youtu.be<\/p>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.1 Those are some big veins…..<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n \nBulging Veins<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging\u00a0muscles\u00a0push surface veins closer to the skin.\u00a0Combine\u00a0that with a virtual lack of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins, as well as bulging\u00a0muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the\u00a0cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n
\nTypes of Blood Vessels<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Blood vessels<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are the part of the\u00a0cardiovascular system<\/a>\u00a0that transports\u00a0blood\u00a0throughout the\u00a0human body. There are three major types of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.<\/p>\n
Arteries<\/h2>\n
Arteries<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0are defined as blood vessels that carry\u00a0blood\u00a0away from the\u00a0heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary arteries, which supply heart muscle\u00a0cells\u00a0with blood, travel\u00a0toward<\/em> the heart, but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells is highly saturated with oxygen (95\u2013100 per cent). These arteries distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.<\/p>\n
The largest artery in the body is the aorta<\/strong><\/a>, which is connected to the heart and extends down into the abdomen (see Figure 14.4.2). The aorta has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.2 This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Veins<\/h2>\n
Veins<\/a><\/strong> are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.3. and as seen in the ultrasonography image in Figure 14.4.4.\u00a0 Veins are called capacitance blood vessels, because the majority of the body\u2019s total volume of blood (about 60 per cent) is contained within veins.<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.3 The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the vein.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Figure 14.4.4 Here you can see the venous valve opening and closing to allow blood to flow closer to the heart with each contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/p>\n
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 per cent).<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.5 The Superior and Inferior Vena Cava are the largest veins in the body. They deliver deoxygenated blood directly to the right atrium.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n The two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava<\/a> \u2014 which carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the heart \u2014 and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body directly to the right atrium (shown in Figure 14.4.5).\u00a0 Like arteries, veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels. The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood from multiple capillaries.\u00a0 See the major veins of the human body in Figure 14.4.6.<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.6 This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Capillaries<\/h2>\n
Capillaries<\/a><\/strong> are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 14.4.7. Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.7 Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that exchange substances with the cells of tissues.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Structure of Blood Vessels<\/span><\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.8 The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have multiple layers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n All blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space, called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is shown in cross section in the photomicrograph (Figure 14.4.8). The width of blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and veins are more similar to one another than to capillaries in the structure of their walls.<\/p>\n
Walls of Arteries and Veins<\/h2>\n
The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers for an artery in the Figure 14.4.9.<\/p>\n
- \n
- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica externa<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0(also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, and also contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels, and attaches them to surrounding structures.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Figure 14.4.9 A vein has the same three layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Capillary Walls<\/h2>\n
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well-suited for the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients, as well as waste products (such as carbon dioxide), can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of capillaries.\u00a0 See figure 14.4.9 for a comparison of the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/p>\n
Figure 14.4.10 There are significant structural differences between arteries, veins and capillaries.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n \nBlood Pressure<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck when you count your pulse.)\u00a0Blood pressure<\/a><\/strong> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), and expressed as a double number \u2014 a higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and a lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg (systolic)\/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart and into smaller arteries.<\/p>\n
As arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow through them, because of the blood’s friction against the arterial walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so that less blood reaches smaller, downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the walls of veins is always about the same \u2014 normally no more than 10 mm Hg.<\/p>\n
\nVasoconstriction and Vasodilation<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Smooth\u00a0muscles\u00a0in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or vasodilation<\/a> (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the arteries \u2014 especially the arterioles\u00a0\u2014\u00a0to contract or relax as needed to help regulate blood pressure<\/a>. In this regard, the arterioles act like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased\u00a0friction\u00a0with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions are controlled by the autonomic\u00a0nervous system\u00a0in response to pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.<\/p>\n
Arteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body\u00a0temperature, by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the body\u2019s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play roles in the fight-or-flight response<\/a>, under control of the sympathetic\u00a0nervous system<\/a>. Vasodilation allows more blood to flow to\u00a0skeletal muscles, and vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to digestive organs.<\/p>\n
\nFeature: My\u00a0Human Body<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n
Figure 14.4.11 This man exhibits varicose veins in his right lower calf.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n \nThe lumpy appearance of this man\u2019s leg (Figure 14.4.10) is caused by varicose veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to your health, knowledge is power.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n
Varicose veins are veins that have become enlarged and twisted, because their valves have become ineffective (see Figure 14.4.11). As a result, blood pools in the veins and stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 14.4.12 This diagram shows how varicose veins form.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n Varicose veins usually are not serious.\u00a0For\u00a0many people, they are only a cosmetic issue.\u00a0In severe cases, however, varicose veins may cause pain and other problems.\u00a0The affected leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over the varicosity may become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may develop.<\/p>\n
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins. Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects, and with many of the treatments, varicose veins may return.\u00a0The\u00a0best treatment for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the condition.<\/p>\n
- \n
- If varicose veins are not serious, conservative treatment options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and wearing graduated compression stockings.<\/li>\n
- For more serious cases, less conservative, but non-surgical options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency\u00a0energy, or steam is used to\u00a0heat\u00a0the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and collapse.<\/li>\n
- For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n
\n 14.4 Summary<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n
\n- \n
- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Veins<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Blood moves through veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood.<\/li>\n
- Capillaries<\/a> are the smallest\u00a0blood vessels. They connect arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds, where substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding tissues.<\/li>\n
- The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is thickest in veins,\u00a0and consists mainly of connective tissue. The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of epithelial cells.<\/li>\n
- Blood pressure<\/a> is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the higher number representing systolic pressure when the ventricles contract, and the lower number representing diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is generally defined as a pressure of less than 120\/80 mm Hg.<\/li>\n
- Vasoconstriction<\/a> (narrowing) and vasodilation<\/a> (widening) of arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body temperature, or change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight response<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
\n\n 14.4 Review Questions<\/span><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n
\n- \n
- What are blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood vessels.<\/li>\n
- \n\n
- Arteries<\/a> are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to pressure from the beating of the heart.<\/li>\n
- Blood vessels<\/a>\u00a0are the part of the cardiovascular system that carries blood throughout the\u00a0human body. They are long, hollow,tube-like structures. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica media<\/a><\/strong> is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibres and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer, because it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter of the vessels- as such, the width of the tunic media can be helpful in distinguishing arteries from veins.<\/li>\n
- The\u00a0tunica intima<\/a><\/strong> is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.<\/li>\n
![Arterial_System_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Arterial_System_en.svg\"){kind=link}
![Skeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump<\/a>\u00a0by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:2114_Skeletal_Muscle_Vein_Pump.jpg\"){kind=link}
![Venous_valve_00013<\/a> by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Venous_valve_00013.gif\"){kind=link}
![Venous_system_en.svg<\/a> by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Venous_system_en.svg\"){kind=link}
![1024px-2105_Capillary_Bed<\/a>\u00a0by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:2105_Capillary_Bed.jpg\"){kind=link}
![Artery<\/a> by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artery.png\"){kind=link}
![Blausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure<\/a> by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Blausen_0055_ArteryWallStructure.png\"){kind=link}
![Artery Vein Capillary Comparison<\/a> by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artery_Vein_Capillary_Comparison.png\"){kind=link}
![Varicose-veins<\/a> by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Varicose-veins.jpg\"){kind=link}
![Varicose_veins-en.svg<\/a> by](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Varicose_veins-en.svg\"){kind=link}
![Varicose veins.jpg<\/a> on Wikimedia Commons from](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Varicose_veins.jpg\"){kind=link}