{"id":593,"date":"2024-03-03T02:23:49","date_gmt":"2024-03-03T02:23:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=593"},"modified":"2024-03-05T22:31:29","modified_gmt":"2024-03-05T22:31:29","slug":"child-development-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/chapter\/child-development-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Child Development Theories","rendered":"Child Development Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"chapter-1:-introduction-to-child-development-\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nAfter this chapter, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Compare and contrast different theories of child development.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze how child development pertains to addressing behaviors.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-598 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice.jpg\" alt=\"Transition of theory into practice. Implementation of theories in practice. Hand places a wooden cube to the loading bar with the words theory and practice\" width=\"683\" height=\"512\" \/><\/h1>\r\n<h2>What is a theory?<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, \u201cNow we are going to look at some theories\u2026\u201d is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhys\u201d of development. Have you ever wondered, \u201cWhy is my 3 year old so inquisitive?\u201d or \u201cWhy are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?\u201d Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A <strong>theory<\/strong> guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. \u00a0Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote20anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote20sym\">20<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Let\u2019s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Sigmund Freud\u2019s Psychosexual Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O\u2019Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image11.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 1.11\" width=\"525\" height=\"714\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.11 - Sigmund Freud.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote21anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote21sym\">21<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Freud\u2019s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>id <\/strong>is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>ego<\/strong> develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>superego<\/strong> represents society\u2019s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The personality is thought to develop in response to the child\u2019s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud\u2019s stages.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table <\/strong><strong>1.<\/strong><strong>2 - <\/strong><strong>Sigmund Freud\u2019s Psychosexual Theory<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Descriptions of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Oral Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>oral stage<\/strong> lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this stage, all stimulation and comfort is focused on the mouth and is based on the reflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to fixation.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Anal Stage <\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>anal stage<\/strong> coincides with potty training or learning to manage biological urges. The ego is beginning to develop in this stage. \u00a0Anal fixation may result in a person who is compulsively clean and organized or one who is sloppy and lacks self-control.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Phallic Stage <\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>phallic stage<\/strong> occurs in early childhood and marks the development of the superego and a sense of masculinity or femininity as culture dictates.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Latency<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Latency<\/strong> occurs during middle childhood when a child\u2019s urges quiet down and friendships become the focus. The ego and superego can be refined as the child learns how to cooperate and negotiate with others.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Genital Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>genital stage<\/strong> begins with puberty and continues through adulthood. Now the preoccupation is that of sex and reproduction.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Freud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud\u2019s views.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote22anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote22sym\">22<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 171.9pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Freud\u2019s Psychosexual Theory<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Freud believed that:<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Development in the early years has a lasting impact.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">There are three parts of the self: the id, the ego, and the superego<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">People go through five stages of psychosexual development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, latency, and the genital stage<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">We study Freud because his assumptions the importance of early childhood experience provide a framework for later theories (the both elaborated and contradicted\/challenged his work).<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Erik Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Now, let\u2019s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society\u2019s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud\u2019s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image12.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.12\" width=\"233\" height=\"292\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.12 - Erik Erikson.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote23anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote23sym\">23<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Erikson expanded on his Freud\u2019s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. \u00a0Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table <\/strong><strong>1.<\/strong><strong>3 - <\/strong><strong>Erik Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Description of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Trust vs. mistrust<\/strong> (0-1)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Autonomy vs. shame and doubt<\/strong> (1-2)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Initiative vs. Guilt<\/strong> (3-5)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things \u201call by myself.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Industry vs. inferiority<\/strong> (6-11)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">School aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Identity vs. role confusion<\/strong> (adolescence)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Intimacy vs. Isolation<\/strong> (young adulthood)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/strong> (middle adulthood)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we\u2019ve made a contribution to society.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Integrity vs. Despair<\/strong> (late adulthood)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson\u2019s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote24anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote24sym\">24<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 28.8pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 128.25pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Erikson was a student of Freud but focused on conscious thought.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">His stages of psychosocial development address the entire lifespan and suggest primary psychosocial crisis in some cultures that adults can use to understand how to support children\u2019s social and emotional development.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">The stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Behaviorism<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote25anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\">25<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image15.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 1.15\" width=\"274\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.15 - B. F. Skinner.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote28anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote28sym\">28<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A <strong>reinforcer<\/strong> is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The use of <strong>positive reinforcement<\/strong> involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Negative reinforcement<\/strong> occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Punishment <\/strong>is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn\u2019t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you\u2019re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Criticisms of Skinner\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\r\nCritics of B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning raise specific concerns when applying this method to address children's behavior. One major criticism is the potential for oversimplification and reductionism, as operant conditioning focuses primarily on observable behaviors and external stimuli, neglecting the rich complexities of children's internal thoughts, emotions, and cognitive processes. Detractors argue that such a narrow focus may fail to capture the full spectrum of factors influencing a child's actions and development. Additionally, critics express reservations about the use of extrinsic reinforcement and punishment in shaping children's behavior, suggesting that an overreliance on external rewards or consequences might not foster intrinsic motivation or a genuine understanding of right and wrong. Ethical concerns are also prevalent, with critics emphasizing the importance of respecting children's autonomy and individuality, raising questions about the potential manipulative nature of behavior modification techniques. Overall, critics argue that while operant conditioning may offer insights into behavior modification, its limitations and potential drawbacks need careful consideration when applied to address children's behavior. (Wessel, 1981)\r\n<h2>Social Learning Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image16.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.16\" width=\"363\" height=\"514\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.16 - Albert Bandura.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote29anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote29sym\">29<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we\u2019ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child\u2019s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote30anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote30sym\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Examples<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">Day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we\u2019ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 28.8pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Behaviorism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Behaviorists look at observable behavior and how it can be predicted and controlled.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Skinner believed that reinforcing behavior is the most effective way of increasing desirable behavior. This is done through operant conditioning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Bandura noted that many behaviors are not learned through any type of conditioning, but rather through imitation. And he believed that people are not only influenced by their surroundings, but that they also have an impact on their surroundings.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Jean Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children\u2019s ability to think and reason by watching his own children\u2019s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children\u2019s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children\u2019s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image17.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.17\" width=\"179\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.17 \u2013 Jean Piaget.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote32anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote32sym\">32<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive <strong>equilibrium<\/strong>. This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A <strong>schema<\/strong> or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for \u201cunder\u201d and \u201csoft\u201d or \u201crunning\u201d and \u201csour\u201d. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is <strong>assimilation<\/strong>. So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being \u201csort of like my brother\u201d or \u201chis voice sounds a lot like yours.\u201d Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I\u2019ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is\u00a0<strong>accommodation<\/strong>. Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think \u201coutside the box.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table 1.4 - <\/strong><strong>Jean Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Description of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 61.6pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Sensorimotor Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">During the s<strong>ensorimotor <\/strong><strong>stage<\/strong> children rely on use of the senses and motor skills. From birth until about age 2, the infant knows by tasting, smelling, touching, hearing, and moving objects around. This is a real hands on type of knowledge.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 139pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Preoperational Stage<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, children from ages 2 to 7, become able to think about the world using symbols. A <strong>symbol<\/strong> is something that stands for something else. The use of language, whether it is in the form of words or gestures, facilitates knowing and communicating about the world. This is the hallmark of preoperational intelligence and occurs in early childhood. However, these children are preoperational or pre-logical. They still do not understand how the physical world operates. They may, for instance, fear that they will go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub, even though they are too big.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 98.5pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Concrete Operational<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Children in the <strong>concrete operational<\/strong> stage, ages 7 to 11, develop the ability to think logically about the physical world. Middle childhood is a time of understanding concepts such as size, distance, and constancy of matter, and cause and effect relationships. A child knows that a scrambled egg is still an egg and that 8 ounces of water is still 8 ounces no matter what shape of glass contains it.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 107.5pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Formal Operational<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">During the <strong>formal operational<\/strong> stage children, at about age 12, acquire the ability to think logically about concrete and abstract events. The teenager who has reached this stage is able to consider possibilities and to contemplate ideas about situations that have never been directly encountered. More abstract understanding of religious ideas or morals or ethics and abstract principles such as freedom and dignity can be considered.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Criticisms of Piaget\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote33anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote33sym\">33<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Main Points To Note About Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget, one of the most influential cognitive theorists, believed that<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Understanding is motivated by trying to balance what we sense in the world and what we know in our minds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understanding is organized through creating categories of knowledge. When presented with new knowledge we may add new schema or modify existing ones.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Children\u2019s understanding of the world of the world changes are their cognitive skills mature through 4 stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concreate operational stage, and formal operational stage.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Lev Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the <strong>zone of proximal development<\/strong>.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote34anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote34sym\">34<\/a><\/sup> His belief was that development occurred first through children\u2019s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote35anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote35sym\">35<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image18.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.18\" width=\"225\" height=\"321\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote36anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote36sym\">36<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is <strong>scaffolding<\/strong> and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote37anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote37sym\">37<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nVygotsky concentrated on the child\u2019s interactions with peers and adults. He believed that the child was an apprentice, learning through sensitive social interactions with more skilled peers and adults.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"chapter-1:-introduction-to-child-development-\">\r\n<h2>Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Vygotsky concentrated more on the child\u2019s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child\u2019s needs and abilities.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote38anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote38sym\">38<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Like Vygotsky\u2019s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Urie Bronfenbrenner\u2019s Ecological Systems Model<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image19.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.19\" width=\"504\" height=\"310\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.19 - Urie Bronfenbrenner.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote39anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote39sym\">39<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual\u2019s development.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table 1.5 - <\/strong><strong>Urie<\/strong><strong> Bronfenbrenner\u2019s Ecological Systems Model<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of System<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Description of System<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Microsystems<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Microsystems<\/strong> impact a child directly. These are the people with whom the child interacts such as parents, peers, and teachers. The relationship between individuals and those around them need to be considered. For example, to appreciate what is going on with a student in math, the relationship between the student and teacher should be known.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Mesosystems<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Mesosystems<\/strong> are interactions between those surrounding the individual. The relationship between parents and schools, for example will indirectly affect the child.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Exosystem<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are referred to as the <strong>exosystem<\/strong>. These have an impact on families and peers and schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Macrosystems<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We find cultural values and beliefs at the level of <strong>macrosystems<\/strong>. These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Chronosystem<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">All of this happens in an historical context referred to as the <strong>chronosystem<\/strong>. Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can\u2019t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher\u2019s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image20.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 1.20\" width=\"482\" height=\"480\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.20 - Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote40anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote40sym\">40<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote41anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote41sym\">41<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 28.8pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Bronfenbrenner\u2019s Ecological Model<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">After studying all of the prior theories, Bronfenbrenner added an important element of context to the discussion of influences on human development.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">He believed that the people involved in children\u2019s lives and when and where they live are important considerations.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">He created a model of nested systems that influence the child (and are influenced by the child) that include: microsystems, mesosystems, the exosystem, macrosystems, and chronosystems.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Conclusion<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In this chapter we looked at:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">underlying principles of development<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">the five periods of development<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">three issues in development<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Various methods of research <span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">important theories that help us understand development<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote20sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote20anc\">20<\/a> <u>Introduction to Developmental Theories<\/u> by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote21sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote21anc\">21<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote22sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote22anc\">22<\/a><u>Psychodynamic Theory<\/u> by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote23sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote23anc\">23<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote24sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote24anc\">24<\/a> Psychosocial Theory by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote25sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a> History of Psychology by\u00a0David B. Baker\u00a0and\u00a0Heather Sperry is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote26sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote27sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote27anc\">27<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote28sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote28anc\">28<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote29sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote29anc\">29<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> by Albert Bandura is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote30sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote30anc\">30<\/a> Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote31sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote31anc\">31<\/a> Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0Rasmussen, Eric (2017, Oct 19). <i>Screen Time and Kids: Insights from a New Report<\/i>. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.pbs.org\/parents\/thrive\/screen-time-and-kids-insights-from-a-new-report<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote32sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote32anc\">32<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote33sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote33anc\">33<\/a> Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris)Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote34sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote34anc\">34<\/a> Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote35sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote35anc\">35<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote36sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote36anc\">36<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> by The Vigotsky Project is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote37sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote37anc\">37<\/a> Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote38sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote38anc\">38<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote39sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote39anc\">39<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> by Marco Vicente Gonz\u00e1lez is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote40sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote40anc\">40<\/a> Image by Ian Joslin is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote41sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote41anc\">41<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"chapter-1:-introduction-to-child-development-\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>After this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Compare and contrast different theories of child development.<\/li>\n<li>Analyze how child development pertains to addressing behaviors.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-598 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice.jpg\" alt=\"Transition of theory into practice. Implementation of theories in practice. Hand places a wooden cube to the loading bar with the words theory and practice\" width=\"683\" height=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice.jpg 683w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2024\/03\/iStock-theory-to-practice-350x262.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/><\/h1>\n<h2>What is a theory?<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, \u201cNow we are going to look at some theories\u2026\u201d is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhys\u201d of development. Have you ever wondered, \u201cWhy is my 3 year old so inquisitive?\u201d or \u201cWhy are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?\u201d Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A <strong>theory<\/strong> guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. \u00a0Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote20anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote20sym\">20<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Let\u2019s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.<\/p>\n<h2>Sigmund Freud\u2019s Psychosexual Theory<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O\u2019Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image11.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 1.11\" width=\"525\" height=\"714\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.11 &#8211; Sigmund Freud.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote21anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote21sym\">21<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Freud\u2019s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>id <\/strong>is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>ego<\/strong> develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>superego<\/strong> represents society\u2019s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The personality is thought to develop in response to the child\u2019s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud\u2019s stages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table <\/strong><strong>1.<\/strong><strong>2 &#8211; <\/strong><strong>Sigmund Freud\u2019s Psychosexual Theory<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Descriptions of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Oral Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>oral stage<\/strong> lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this stage, all stimulation and comfort is focused on the mouth and is based on the reflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to fixation.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Anal Stage <\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>anal stage<\/strong> coincides with potty training or learning to manage biological urges. The ego is beginning to develop in this stage. \u00a0Anal fixation may result in a person who is compulsively clean and organized or one who is sloppy and lacks self-control.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Phallic Stage <\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>phallic stage<\/strong> occurs in early childhood and marks the development of the superego and a sense of masculinity or femininity as culture dictates.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Latency<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Latency<\/strong> occurs during middle childhood when a child\u2019s urges quiet down and friendships become the focus. The ego and superego can be refined as the child learns how to cooperate and negotiate with others.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 57.6pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Genital Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The <strong>genital stage<\/strong> begins with puberty and continues through adulthood. Now the preoccupation is that of sex and reproduction.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Freud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud\u2019s views.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote22anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote22sym\">22<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 171.9pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Freud\u2019s Psychosexual Theory<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Freud believed that:<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Development in the early years has a lasting impact.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">There are three parts of the self: the id, the ego, and the superego<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">People go through five stages of psychosexual development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, latency, and the genital stage<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">We study Freud because his assumptions the importance of early childhood experience provide a framework for later theories (the both elaborated and contradicted\/challenged his work).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Erik Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Now, let\u2019s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society\u2019s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud\u2019s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image12.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.12\" width=\"233\" height=\"292\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.12 &#8211; Erik Erikson.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote23anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote23sym\">23<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Erikson expanded on his Freud\u2019s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. \u00a0Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table <\/strong><strong>1.<\/strong><strong>3 &#8211; <\/strong><strong>Erik Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Description of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Trust vs. mistrust<\/strong> (0-1)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Autonomy vs. shame and doubt<\/strong> (1-2)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Initiative vs. Guilt<\/strong> (3-5)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things \u201call by myself.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Industry vs. inferiority<\/strong> (6-11)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">School aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Identity vs. role confusion<\/strong> (adolescence)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Intimacy vs. Isolation<\/strong> (young adulthood)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/strong> (middle adulthood)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we\u2019ve made a contribution to society.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Integrity vs. Despair<\/strong> (late adulthood)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson\u2019s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote24anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote24sym\">24<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 28.8pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Theory<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 128.25pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Erikson was a student of Freud but focused on conscious thought.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">His stages of psychosocial development address the entire lifespan and suggest primary psychosocial crisis in some cultures that adults can use to understand how to support children\u2019s social and emotional development.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">The stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Behaviorism<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote25anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\">25<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h2>B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image15.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 1.15\" width=\"274\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.15 &#8211; B. F. Skinner.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote28anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote28sym\">28<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A <strong>reinforcer<\/strong> is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The use of <strong>positive reinforcement<\/strong> involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Negative reinforcement<\/strong> occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Punishment <\/strong>is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn\u2019t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you\u2019re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.<\/p>\n<h2>Criticisms of Skinner\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\n<p>Critics of B.F. Skinner&#8217;s operant conditioning raise specific concerns when applying this method to address children&#8217;s behavior. One major criticism is the potential for oversimplification and reductionism, as operant conditioning focuses primarily on observable behaviors and external stimuli, neglecting the rich complexities of children&#8217;s internal thoughts, emotions, and cognitive processes. Detractors argue that such a narrow focus may fail to capture the full spectrum of factors influencing a child&#8217;s actions and development. Additionally, critics express reservations about the use of extrinsic reinforcement and punishment in shaping children&#8217;s behavior, suggesting that an overreliance on external rewards or consequences might not foster intrinsic motivation or a genuine understanding of right and wrong. Ethical concerns are also prevalent, with critics emphasizing the importance of respecting children&#8217;s autonomy and individuality, raising questions about the potential manipulative nature of behavior modification techniques. Overall, critics argue that while operant conditioning may offer insights into behavior modification, its limitations and potential drawbacks need careful consideration when applied to address children&#8217;s behavior. (Wessel, 1981)<\/p>\n<h2>Social Learning Theory<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image16.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.16\" width=\"363\" height=\"514\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.16 &#8211; Albert Bandura.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote29anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote29sym\">29<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we\u2019ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child\u2019s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote30anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote30sym\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Examples<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">Day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we\u2019ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 28.8pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Behaviorism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">Behaviorists look at observable behavior and how it can be predicted and controlled.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Skinner believed that reinforcing behavior is the most effective way of increasing desirable behavior. This is done through operant conditioning.<\/li>\n<li>Bandura noted that many behaviors are not learned through any type of conditioning, but rather through imitation. And he believed that people are not only influenced by their surroundings, but that they also have an impact on their surroundings.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.<\/p>\n<h2>Jean Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children\u2019s ability to think and reason by watching his own children\u2019s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children\u2019s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children\u2019s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image17.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.17\" width=\"179\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.17 \u2013 Jean Piaget.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote32anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote32sym\">32<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive <strong>equilibrium<\/strong>. This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A <strong>schema<\/strong> or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for \u201cunder\u201d and \u201csoft\u201d or \u201crunning\u201d and \u201csour\u201d. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is <strong>assimilation<\/strong>. So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being \u201csort of like my brother\u201d or \u201chis voice sounds a lot like yours.\u201d Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I\u2019ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is\u00a0<strong>accommodation<\/strong>. Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think \u201coutside the box.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table 1.4 &#8211; <\/strong><strong>Jean Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Description of Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 61.6pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Sensorimotor Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">During the s<strong>ensorimotor <\/strong><strong>stage<\/strong> children rely on use of the senses and motor skills. From birth until about age 2, the infant knows by tasting, smelling, touching, hearing, and moving objects around. This is a real hands on type of knowledge.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 139pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Preoperational Stage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, children from ages 2 to 7, become able to think about the world using symbols. A <strong>symbol<\/strong> is something that stands for something else. The use of language, whether it is in the form of words or gestures, facilitates knowing and communicating about the world. This is the hallmark of preoperational intelligence and occurs in early childhood. However, these children are preoperational or pre-logical. They still do not understand how the physical world operates. They may, for instance, fear that they will go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub, even though they are too big.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 98.5pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Concrete Operational<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Children in the <strong>concrete operational<\/strong> stage, ages 7 to 11, develop the ability to think logically about the physical world. Middle childhood is a time of understanding concepts such as size, distance, and constancy of matter, and cause and effect relationships. A child knows that a scrambled egg is still an egg and that 8 ounces of water is still 8 ounces no matter what shape of glass contains it.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 107.5pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: none windowtext 0pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Formal Operational<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: none windowtext 0pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">During the <strong>formal operational<\/strong> stage children, at about age 12, acquire the ability to think logically about concrete and abstract events. The teenager who has reached this stage is able to consider possibilities and to contemplate ideas about situations that have never been directly encountered. More abstract understanding of religious ideas or morals or ethics and abstract principles such as freedom and dignity can be considered.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Criticisms of Piaget\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote33anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote33sym\">33<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Main Points To Note About Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Piaget, one of the most influential cognitive theorists, believed that<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Understanding is motivated by trying to balance what we sense in the world and what we know in our minds.<\/li>\n<li>Understanding is organized through creating categories of knowledge. When presented with new knowledge we may add new schema or modify existing ones.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Children\u2019s understanding of the world of the world changes are their cognitive skills mature through 4 stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concreate operational stage, and formal operational stage.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Lev Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the <strong>zone of proximal development<\/strong>.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote34anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote34sym\">34<\/a><\/sup> His belief was that development occurred first through children\u2019s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote35anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote35sym\">35<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image18.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.18\" width=\"225\" height=\"321\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote36anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote36sym\">36<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is <strong>scaffolding<\/strong> and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote37anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote37sym\">37<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Vygotsky concentrated on the child\u2019s interactions with peers and adults. He believed that the child was an apprentice, learning through sensitive social interactions with more skilled peers and adults.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"chapter-1:-introduction-to-child-development-\">\n<h2>Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Vygotsky concentrated more on the child\u2019s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child\u2019s needs and abilities.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote38anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote38sym\">38<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Like Vygotsky\u2019s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.<\/p>\n<h2>Urie Bronfenbrenner\u2019s Ecological Systems Model<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image19.png\" alt=\"Figure 1.19\" width=\"504\" height=\"310\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.19 &#8211; Urie Bronfenbrenner.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote39anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote39sym\">39<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual\u2019s development.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table 1.5 &#8211; <\/strong><strong>Urie<\/strong><strong> Bronfenbrenner\u2019s Ecological Systems Model<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Name of System<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #f8c3da;vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Description of System<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Microsystems<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Microsystems<\/strong> impact a child directly. These are the people with whom the child interacts such as parents, peers, and teachers. The relationship between individuals and those around them need to be considered. For example, to appreciate what is going on with a student in math, the relationship between the student and teacher should be known.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Mesosystems<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Mesosystems<\/strong> are interactions between those surrounding the individual. The relationship between parents and schools, for example will indirectly affect the child.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Exosystem<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are referred to as the <strong>exosystem<\/strong>. These have an impact on families and peers and schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Macrosystems<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We find cultural values and beliefs at the level of <strong>macrosystems<\/strong>. These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 50.4pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-left: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Chronosystem<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"vertical-align: middle;border-top: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-right: solid windowtext 0.5pt;border-bottom: solid windowtext 0.5pt;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">All of this happens in an historical context referred to as the <strong>chronosystem<\/strong>. Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can\u2019t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher\u2019s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image20.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 1.20\" width=\"482\" height=\"480\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 1.20 &#8211; Bronfenbrenner&#8217;s ecological systems theory.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote40anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote40sym\">40<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote41anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote41sym\">41<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\" style=\"height: 28.8pt\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\"><strong>Main Points to Note About Bronfenbrenner\u2019s Ecological Model<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableNormal-R\">\n<td class=\"TableNormal-C\" style=\"background-color: #311850;color: #ffffff;vertical-align: middle;padding: 0pt 5.4pt 0pt 5.4pt\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">After studying all of the prior theories, Bronfenbrenner added an important element of context to the discussion of influences on human development.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">He believed that the people involved in children\u2019s lives and when and where they live are important considerations.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">He created a model of nested systems that influence the child (and are influenced by the child) that include: microsystems, mesosystems, the exosystem, macrosystems, and chronosystems.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In this chapter we looked at:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">underlying principles of development<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">the five periods of development<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">three issues in development<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Various methods of research <span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">important theories that help us understand development<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote20sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote20anc\">20<\/a> <u>Introduction to Developmental Theories<\/u> by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote21sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote21anc\">21<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote22sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote22anc\">22<\/a><u>Psychodynamic Theory<\/u> by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote23sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote23anc\">23<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote24sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote24anc\">24<\/a> Psychosocial Theory by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote25sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a> History of Psychology by\u00a0David B. Baker\u00a0and\u00a0Heather Sperry is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote26sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote27sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote27anc\">27<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote28sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote28anc\">28<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote29sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote29anc\">29<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> by Albert Bandura is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote30sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote30anc\">30<\/a> Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote31sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote31anc\">31<\/a> Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0Rasmussen, Eric (2017, Oct 19). <i>Screen Time and Kids: Insights from a New Report<\/i>. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.pbs.org\/parents\/thrive\/screen-time-and-kids-insights-from-a-new-report<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote32sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote32anc\">32<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote33sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote33anc\">33<\/a> Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris)Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote34sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote34anc\">34<\/a> Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote35sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote35anc\">35<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote36sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote36anc\">36<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> by The Vigotsky Project is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote37sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote37anc\">37<\/a> Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote38sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote38anc\">38<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote39sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote39anc\">39<\/a> <u>Image<\/u> by Marco Vicente Gonz\u00e1lez is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote40sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote40anc\">40<\/a> Image by Ian Joslin is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote41sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote41anc\">41<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. 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