{"id":494,"date":"2024-01-21T23:43:46","date_gmt":"2024-01-21T23:43:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=494"},"modified":"2024-04-22T20:12:05","modified_gmt":"2024-04-22T20:12:05","slug":"494","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/chapter\/494\/","title":{"raw":"Early Childhood Education","rendered":"Early Childhood Education"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nType your learning objectives here.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss how early child education supports development and how our understanding of development influence education.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe autism spectrum disorder, including characteristics and possible interventions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Early Childhood Education<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Providing universal preschool has become an important lobbying point for federal, state, and local leaders throughout our country. In his 2013 State of the Union address, President Obama called upon congress to provide high quality preschool for all children. He continued to support universal preschool in his legislative agenda, and in December 2014 the President convened state and local policymakers for the White House Summit on Early Education (White House Press Secretary, 2014).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">However, universal preschool covering all four-year olds in the country would require significant funding. Further, how effective preschools are in preparing children for elementary school, and what constitutes high quality early childhood education have been debated.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">To set criteria for designation as a high quality preschool, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identifies 10 standards (NAEYC, 2016). These include:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Positive relationships among all children and adults are promoted.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A curriculum that supports learning and development in social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive areas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teaching approaches that are developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Assessment of children\u2019s progress to provide information on learning and development.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The health and nutrition of children are promoted, while they are protected from illness and injury.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teachers possess the educational qualifications, knowledge, and commitment to promote children\u2019s learning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Collaborative relationships with families are established and maintained.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Relationships with agencies and institutions in the children\u2019s communities are established to support the program\u2019s goals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The indoor and outdoor physical environments are safe and well-maintained.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Leadership and management personnel are well qualified, effective, and maintain licensure status with the applicable state agency.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Parents should review preschool programs using the NAEYC criteria as a guide and template for asking questions that will assist them in choosing the best program for their child.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-NormalWeb\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image16-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.15\" width=\"330\" height=\"236\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.15 \u2013 Children making crafts at preschool.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote25anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\">25<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Selecting the right preschool is also difficult because there are so many types of preschools available. Zachry (2013) identified Montessori, Waldorf, Reggio Emilia, High Scope, Creative Curriculum and Bank Street as types of early childhood education programs that focus on children learning through discovery. Teachers act as facilitators of children\u2019s learning and development and create activities based on the child\u2019s developmental level. Here is a table summarizes characteristics of each type of program.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table 8.3 - Types of Early Childhood Education Programs<\/strong><sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><strong><a id=\"sdfootnote26anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote26sym\">26<\/a><\/strong><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"height: 1017px\" width=\"993\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 29px;vertical-align: middle;background-color: #f8c3da\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Program<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 29px;vertical-align: middle;background-color: #f8c3da\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Founder<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 29px;vertical-align: middle;background-color: #f8c3da\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Characteristics<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 135px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 135px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Montessori<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 135px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Dr. Maria Montessori<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 135px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Refers to children\u2019s activity as work (not play); children are given long periods of time to work<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus on individual learning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Features child-sized furniture and defined work areas<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Materials are carefully chosen and introduced to children by teacher<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Features mixed-aged grouping<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teachers should be certified<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 151px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 151px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Waldorf<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 151px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Rudolf Steiner<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 151px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Focus on whole child<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Features connections to nature, sensory learning, and imagination<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Provides large blocks of time for play<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Delay formal academic instruction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Environment protects children from negative influences<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Relationships are important so groupings last for several years (<strong>looping<\/strong>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teachers should be certified<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 182px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 182px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Reggio Emilia<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 182px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Loris Malaguzzi<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 182px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Teachers and children co-construct the curriculum<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teachers are researchers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Environment is the third teacher and features beauty and order<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children\u2019s learning is documented through the multiple methods (100 languages of children)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have atelier (art studio) with an atelierista (artist) to instruct children<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Believe children are competent and capable<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children stay together for 3 years<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Parents partner with teachers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Community is extension of school<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 166px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 166px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>High Scope<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 166px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">David Weikart<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 166px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Features defined learning areas<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Has 8 content areas with 58 key developmental indicators<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Consistency of daily routine is important<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Uses plan-do-review sequence in which they make a plan, act on it, and then reflect on the results<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teachers are partners and use the Child Observation Record (COR) to help assess children and plan curriculum<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Utilizes 6 step process to teach children conflict resolution<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 135px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 135px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Bank Street<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 135px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Lucy Sprague Mitchell<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 135px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Also referred to as the Developmental-Interactionist Approach<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Environment is arranged into learning centers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus on hands-on experience with long periods of time given<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teacher uses questions to further children\u2019s exploration<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Blocks are primary material in the classroom<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Field trips are frequently used<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 119px\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 119px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Creative Curriculum<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 119px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Diane Trister Dodge<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 119px\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Focus on children\u2019s play and self-selected activities<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Environment is arranged into learning areas<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Large blocks of time are given for self-selected play<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Uses projects as basis for curriculum<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is researched based and includes assessment system<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Head Start<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">For children who live in poverty, Head Start has been providing preschool education since 1965 when it was begun by President Lyndon Johnson as part of his war on poverty. It currently serves nearly one million children and annually costs approximately 7.5 billion dollars (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). However, concerns about the effectiveness of Head Start have been ongoing since the program began. Armor (2015) reviewed existing research on Head Start and found there were no lasting gains, and the average child in Head Start had not learned more than children who did not receive preschool education.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image17-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.16\" width=\"355\" height=\"240\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.16 \u2013 A photograph from when Head Start began.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote27anc\" href=\"\/wp-admin\/post.php?post=197&amp;action=edit#sdfootnote27sym\">27<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A recent report dated July 2015 evaluating the effectiveness of Head Start comes from the What Works Clearinghouse. The What Works Clearinghouse identifies research that provides reliable evidence of the effectiveness of programs and practices in education, and is managed by the Institute of Education Services for the United States Department of Education. After reviewing 90 studies on the effectiveness of Head Start, only one study was deemed scientifically acceptable and this study showed disappointing results (Barshay, 2015). This study showed that 3- and 4-year-old children in Head Start received \u201cpotentially positive effects\u201d on general reading achievement, but no noticeable effects on math achievement and social-emotional development.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Nonexperimental designs are a significant problem in determining the effectiveness of Head Start programs because a control group is needed to show group differences that would demonstrate educational benefits. Because of ethical reasons, low income children are usually provided with some type of pre-school programming in an alternative setting. Additionally, Head Start programs are different depending on the location, and these differences include the length of the day or qualification of the teachers. Lastly, testing young children is difficult and strongly dependent on their language skills and comfort level with an evaluator (Barshay, 2015).<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote28anc\" href=\"\/wp-admin\/post.php?post=197&amp;action=edit#sdfootnote28sym\">28<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Applications to Early Education<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for improving education. Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and spatial relationships can give young children a developmental advantage over peers who have less exposure to the same concepts.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Mathematics<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Even before they enter kindergarten, the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds. Ramani and Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to the children in middle- and upper-income families engaging more frequently in numerical activities, for example playing numerical board games such as Chutes and Ladders. Chutes and Ladders is a game with a number in each square; children start at the number one and spin a spinner or throw a dice to determine how far to move their token. Playing this game seemed likely to teach children about numbers, because in it, larger numbers are associated with greater values on a variety of dimensions. In particular, the higher the number that a child\u2019s token reaches, the greater the distance the token will have traveled from the starting point, the greater the number of physical movements the child will have made in moving the token from one square to another, the greater the number of number-words the child will have said and heard, and the more time will have passed since the beginning of the game. These spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and time-based cues provide a broad-based, multisensory foundation for knowledge of numerical magnitudes (the sizes of numbers), a type of knowledge that is closely related to mathematics achievement test scores (Booth &amp; Siegler, 2006).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over a 2-week period, improved low-income children\u2019s knowledge of numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed numbers, and skill at learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after the game-playing experience (Ramani &amp; Siegler, 2008; Siegler &amp; Ramani, 2009). An advantage of this type of educational intervention is that it has minimal if any cost\u2014a parent could just draw a game on a piece of paper.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Reading<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Cognitive developmental research has shown that phonemic awareness\u2014that is, awareness of the component sounds within words\u2014is a crucial skill in learning to read. To measure awareness of the component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide whether two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the same sound, to identify the component sounds within words, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word. Kindergartners\u2019 performance on these tasks is the strongest predictor of reading achievement in third and fourth grade, even stronger than IQ or social class background (Nation, 2008). Moreover, teaching these skills to randomly chosen 4- and 5-year-olds results in their being better readers years later (National Reading Panel, 2000).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Continuing Brain Maturation<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Understanding of cognitive development is advancing on many different fronts. One exciting area is linking changes in brain activity to changes in children\u2019s thinking (Nelson et al., 2006). Although many people believe that brain maturation is something that occurs before birth, the brain actually continues to change in large ways for many years thereafter. For example, a part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which is located at the front of the brain and is particularly involved with planning and flexible problem solving, continues to develop throughout adolescence (Blakemore &amp; Choudhury, 2006). Such new research domains, as well as enduring issues such as nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and how to apply cognitive development research to education, insure that cognitive development will continue to be an exciting area of research in the coming years.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote29anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote29sym\">29<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Cognitive Differences<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Sometimes children\u2019s brains work differently. One form of this neurodiversity is <strong>Autism spectrum disorder.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Autism: Defining Spectrum Disorder<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a range of conditions classified as neuro-developmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013, redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorder. These disorders are characterized by social deficits and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and in some cases,<span class=\"import-Hyperlink\"> cognitive<\/span> delays.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism in the earlier DSM-IV by the lack of delay or deviance in early language development. Additionally, individuals diagnosed with Asperger syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays. PDD-NOS was considered \"subthreshold autism\" and \"atypical autism\" because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties). In the DSM-5, both of these diagnoses have been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Autism spectrum disorders are considered to be on a spectrum because each individual with ASD expresses the disorder uniquely and has varying degrees of functionality. Many have above-average intellectual abilities and excel in visual skills, music, math, and the arts, while others have significant disabilities and are unable to live independently. About 25 percent of individuals with ASD are nonverbal; however, they may learn to communicate using other means.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Social Communication Symptoms<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Social impairments in children with autism can be characterized by a distinctive lack of intuition about others. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Infants with ASD show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Toddlers with ASD differ<span class=\"import-Hyperlink\"> more<\/span> strikingly from social norms; for example, they may show less eye contact and turn-taking and may not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves. Individuals with severe forms of ASD do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Children with ASD may exhibit repetitive or restricted behavior, including:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Stereotypy\u2014repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compulsive behavior\u2014exhibiting intention to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sameness\u2014resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or sticking to an unvarying pattern of daily activities.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Restricted behavior\u2014limits in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Self-injury\u2014movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin picking, hand biting, and head banging.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image18-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.17\" width=\"264\" height=\"266\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.17 \u2013 A boy stacking cans.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote30anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote30sym\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Etiology<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">While specific causes of ASD have yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the research literature that may contribute to its development. These risk factors include genetics, prenatal and<span class=\"import-Hyperlink\"> perinatal<\/span> factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Genetics<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">ASD affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; thus, it is categorized as a neuro-developmental disorder. The results of family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of ASD and other pervasive developmental disorders. Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of ASD in siblings of children with ASD is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the general population. In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate among monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. It appears that there is no single gene that can account for ASD; instead, there seem to be multiple genes involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups. It is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations or by combinations of common genetic variants.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The Diversity of the Autism Spectrum<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The rainbow-colored infinity symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as the greater neurodiversity movement. The neurodiversity movement suggests that diverse neurological conditions appear as a result of normal variations in the human genome. It challenges the idea that such neurological differences are inherently pathological, instead asserting that differences should be recognized and respected as a social category on a par with gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability status.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image19-2.png\" alt=\"Figure 8.18\" width=\"198\" height=\"153\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.18 \u2013 A symbol of the autism spectrum.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote31anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote31sym\">31<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Prenatal and Perinatal Factors<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for ASD. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (such as valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium (the earliest stool of an infant) in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to ASD, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in children with ASD than in developing youth without ASD.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Environmental Factors<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Evidence for environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies. In the last few decades, controversy surrounded the idea that vaccinations may be the cause for many cases of autism; however, these theories lack scientific evidence and are biologically implausible. Even still, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Treatment<\/h5>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">There is no known cure for ASD, and treatment tends to focus on management of symptoms. The main goals when treating children with ASD are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote32anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote32sym\">32<\/a><\/sup> Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care can reduce individuals\u2019 difficulties while helping them learn new skills and make the most of their strengths.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The wide range of issues facing people with ASD means that there is no single best treatment for ASD.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote33anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote33sym\">33<\/a><\/sup> So treatment is typically tailored to the individual person's needs. Intensive, sustained special-education programs and behavior therapy yearly in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. The most widely used therapy <strong>is<\/strong> <strong>applied behavior analysis<\/strong> (ABA); other available approaches include developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote34anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote34sym\">34<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-NormalWeb\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image20-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.19\" width=\"344\" height=\"277\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.19 \u2013 A boy with ASD receiving therapy.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote35anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote35sym\">35<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for young children with ASD. Although evidence-based interventions for children with ASD vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication, and social skills while minimizing behaviors that are thought to be problematic.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote36anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote36sym\">36<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Conclusion<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In this chapter we covered,<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Piaget\u2019s preoperational stage.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Vygotsky\u2019s sociocultural theory.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Information processing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How young children understand the world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Typical progression of cognitive and language development (milestones).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Early childhood education.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Autism spectrum disorder.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the next chapter, we will finish covering early childhood education by looking at how children understand themselves and interact with the world.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote25sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a> Image by Seattle City Council is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote26sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a> Gordon, A. M., &amp; Browne, K. W. (2016). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. (3rd ed.). Cengage: Boston.<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote27sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote27anc\">27<\/a> Image by Children\u2019s Bureau Centennial<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote28sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote28anc\">28<\/a> Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote29sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote29anc\">29<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote30sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote30anc\">30<\/a> Image by Countincr is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote31sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote31anc\">31<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote32sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote32anc\">32<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote33sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote33anc\">33<\/a> Autism Spectrum Disorder by the National Institute of Mental Health is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote34sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote34anc\">34<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote35sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote35anc\">35<\/a> Image by Edwards Air Force Base is in the public domain<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sdfootnote36sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote36anc\">36<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Type your learning objectives here.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss how early child education supports development and how our understanding of development influence education.<\/li>\n<li>Describe autism spectrum disorder, including characteristics and possible interventions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Early Childhood Education<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Providing universal preschool has become an important lobbying point for federal, state, and local leaders throughout our country. In his 2013 State of the Union address, President Obama called upon congress to provide high quality preschool for all children. He continued to support universal preschool in his legislative agenda, and in December 2014 the President convened state and local policymakers for the White House Summit on Early Education (White House Press Secretary, 2014).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">However, universal preschool covering all four-year olds in the country would require significant funding. Further, how effective preschools are in preparing children for elementary school, and what constitutes high quality early childhood education have been debated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">To set criteria for designation as a high quality preschool, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identifies 10 standards (NAEYC, 2016). These include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Positive relationships among all children and adults are promoted.<\/li>\n<li>A curriculum that supports learning and development in social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive areas.<\/li>\n<li>Teaching approaches that are developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate.<\/li>\n<li>Assessment of children\u2019s progress to provide information on learning and development.<\/li>\n<li>The health and nutrition of children are promoted, while they are protected from illness and injury.<\/li>\n<li>Teachers possess the educational qualifications, knowledge, and commitment to promote children\u2019s learning.<\/li>\n<li>Collaborative relationships with families are established and maintained.<\/li>\n<li>Relationships with agencies and institutions in the children\u2019s communities are established to support the program\u2019s goals.<\/li>\n<li>The indoor and outdoor physical environments are safe and well-maintained.<\/li>\n<li>Leadership and management personnel are well qualified, effective, and maintain licensure status with the applicable state agency.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Parents should review preschool programs using the NAEYC criteria as a guide and template for asking questions that will assist them in choosing the best program for their child.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-NormalWeb\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image16-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.15\" width=\"330\" height=\"236\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.15 \u2013 Children making crafts at preschool.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote25anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote25sym\">25<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Selecting the right preschool is also difficult because there are so many types of preschools available. Zachry (2013) identified Montessori, Waldorf, Reggio Emilia, High Scope, Creative Curriculum and Bank Street as types of early childhood education programs that focus on children learning through discovery. Teachers act as facilitators of children\u2019s learning and development and create activities based on the child\u2019s developmental level. Here is a table summarizes characteristics of each type of program.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Table 8.3 &#8211; Types of Early Childhood Education Programs<\/strong><sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><strong><a id=\"sdfootnote26anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote26sym\">26<\/a><\/strong><\/sup><\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 1017px; width: 993px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 0\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 29px;vertical-align: middle;background-color: #f8c3da\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Program<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 29px;vertical-align: middle;background-color: #f8c3da\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Founder<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 29px;vertical-align: middle;background-color: #f8c3da\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Characteristics<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 135px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 135px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Montessori<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 135px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Dr. Maria Montessori<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 135px\">\n<ul>\n<li>Refers to children\u2019s activity as work (not play); children are given long periods of time to work<\/li>\n<li>Focus on individual learning<\/li>\n<li>Features child-sized furniture and defined work areas<\/li>\n<li>Materials are carefully chosen and introduced to children by teacher<\/li>\n<li>Features mixed-aged grouping<\/li>\n<li>Teachers should be certified<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 151px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 151px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Waldorf<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 151px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Rudolf Steiner<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 151px\">\n<ul>\n<li>Focus on whole child<\/li>\n<li>Features connections to nature, sensory learning, and imagination<\/li>\n<li>Provides large blocks of time for play<\/li>\n<li>Delay formal academic instruction<\/li>\n<li>Environment protects children from negative influences<\/li>\n<li>Relationships are important so groupings last for several years (<strong>looping<\/strong>)<\/li>\n<li>Teachers should be certified<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 182px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 182px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Reggio Emilia<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 182px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Loris Malaguzzi<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 182px\">\n<ul>\n<li>Teachers and children co-construct the curriculum<\/li>\n<li>Teachers are researchers<\/li>\n<li>Environment is the third teacher and features beauty and order<\/li>\n<li>Children\u2019s learning is documented through the multiple methods (100 languages of children)<\/li>\n<li>Have atelier (art studio) with an atelierista (artist) to instruct children<\/li>\n<li>Believe children are competent and capable<\/li>\n<li>Children stay together for 3 years<\/li>\n<li>Parents partner with teachers<\/li>\n<li>Community is extension of school<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 166px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 166px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>High Scope<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 166px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">David Weikart<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 166px\">\n<ul>\n<li>Features defined learning areas<\/li>\n<li>Has 8 content areas with 58 key developmental indicators<\/li>\n<li>Consistency of daily routine is important<\/li>\n<li>Uses plan-do-review sequence in which they make a plan, act on it, and then reflect on the results<\/li>\n<li>Teachers are partners and use the Child Observation Record (COR) to help assess children and plan curriculum<\/li>\n<li>Utilizes 6 step process to teach children conflict resolution<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 135px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 135px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Bank Street<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 135px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Lucy Sprague Mitchell<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 135px\">\n<ul>\n<li>Also referred to as the Developmental-Interactionist Approach<\/li>\n<li>Environment is arranged into learning centers<\/li>\n<li>Focus on hands-on experience with long periods of time given<\/li>\n<li>Teacher uses questions to further children\u2019s exploration<\/li>\n<li>Blocks are primary material in the classroom<\/li>\n<li>Field trips are frequently used<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 119px\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;border-style: solid none solid solid;border-color: windowtext;width: 133.41px;height: 119px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Creative Curriculum<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 138.65px;height: 119px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Diane Trister Dodge<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0pt;border-style: solid solid solid none;border-color: windowtext;width: 680.06px;height: 119px\">\n<ul>\n<li>Focus on children\u2019s play and self-selected activities<\/li>\n<li>Environment is arranged into learning areas<\/li>\n<li>Large blocks of time are given for self-selected play<\/li>\n<li>Uses projects as basis for curriculum<\/li>\n<li>Is researched based and includes assessment system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Head Start<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">For children who live in poverty, Head Start has been providing preschool education since 1965 when it was begun by President Lyndon Johnson as part of his war on poverty. It currently serves nearly one million children and annually costs approximately 7.5 billion dollars (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). However, concerns about the effectiveness of Head Start have been ongoing since the program began. Armor (2015) reviewed existing research on Head Start and found there were no lasting gains, and the average child in Head Start had not learned more than children who did not receive preschool education.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image17-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.16\" width=\"355\" height=\"240\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.16 \u2013 A photograph from when Head Start began.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote27anc\" href=\"\/wp-admin\/post.php?post=197&amp;action=edit#sdfootnote27sym\">27<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A recent report dated July 2015 evaluating the effectiveness of Head Start comes from the What Works Clearinghouse. The What Works Clearinghouse identifies research that provides reliable evidence of the effectiveness of programs and practices in education, and is managed by the Institute of Education Services for the United States Department of Education. After reviewing 90 studies on the effectiveness of Head Start, only one study was deemed scientifically acceptable and this study showed disappointing results (Barshay, 2015). This study showed that 3- and 4-year-old children in Head Start received \u201cpotentially positive effects\u201d on general reading achievement, but no noticeable effects on math achievement and social-emotional development.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Nonexperimental designs are a significant problem in determining the effectiveness of Head Start programs because a control group is needed to show group differences that would demonstrate educational benefits. Because of ethical reasons, low income children are usually provided with some type of pre-school programming in an alternative setting. Additionally, Head Start programs are different depending on the location, and these differences include the length of the day or qualification of the teachers. Lastly, testing young children is difficult and strongly dependent on their language skills and comfort level with an evaluator (Barshay, 2015).<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote28anc\" href=\"\/wp-admin\/post.php?post=197&amp;action=edit#sdfootnote28sym\">28<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h3>Applications to Early Education<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for improving education. Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and spatial relationships can give young children a developmental advantage over peers who have less exposure to the same concepts.<\/p>\n<h4>Mathematics<\/h4>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Even before they enter kindergarten, the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds. Ramani and Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to the children in middle- and upper-income families engaging more frequently in numerical activities, for example playing numerical board games such as Chutes and Ladders. Chutes and Ladders is a game with a number in each square; children start at the number one and spin a spinner or throw a dice to determine how far to move their token. Playing this game seemed likely to teach children about numbers, because in it, larger numbers are associated with greater values on a variety of dimensions. In particular, the higher the number that a child\u2019s token reaches, the greater the distance the token will have traveled from the starting point, the greater the number of physical movements the child will have made in moving the token from one square to another, the greater the number of number-words the child will have said and heard, and the more time will have passed since the beginning of the game. These spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and time-based cues provide a broad-based, multisensory foundation for knowledge of numerical magnitudes (the sizes of numbers), a type of knowledge that is closely related to mathematics achievement test scores (Booth &amp; Siegler, 2006).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over a 2-week period, improved low-income children\u2019s knowledge of numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed numbers, and skill at learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after the game-playing experience (Ramani &amp; Siegler, 2008; Siegler &amp; Ramani, 2009). An advantage of this type of educational intervention is that it has minimal if any cost\u2014a parent could just draw a game on a piece of paper.<\/p>\n<h4>Reading<\/h4>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Cognitive developmental research has shown that phonemic awareness\u2014that is, awareness of the component sounds within words\u2014is a crucial skill in learning to read. To measure awareness of the component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide whether two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the same sound, to identify the component sounds within words, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word. Kindergartners\u2019 performance on these tasks is the strongest predictor of reading achievement in third and fourth grade, even stronger than IQ or social class background (Nation, 2008). Moreover, teaching these skills to randomly chosen 4- and 5-year-olds results in their being better readers years later (National Reading Panel, 2000).<\/p>\n<h4>Continuing Brain Maturation<\/h4>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Understanding of cognitive development is advancing on many different fronts. One exciting area is linking changes in brain activity to changes in children\u2019s thinking (Nelson et al., 2006). Although many people believe that brain maturation is something that occurs before birth, the brain actually continues to change in large ways for many years thereafter. For example, a part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which is located at the front of the brain and is particularly involved with planning and flexible problem solving, continues to develop throughout adolescence (Blakemore &amp; Choudhury, 2006). Such new research domains, as well as enduring issues such as nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and how to apply cognitive development research to education, insure that cognitive development will continue to be an exciting area of research in the coming years.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote29anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote29sym\">29<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h3>Cognitive Differences<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Sometimes children\u2019s brains work differently. One form of this neurodiversity is <strong>Autism spectrum disorder.<\/strong><\/p>\n<h4>Autism: Defining Spectrum Disorder<\/h4>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a range of conditions classified as neuro-developmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association&#8217;s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013, redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorder. These disorders are characterized by social deficits and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and in some cases,<span class=\"import-Hyperlink\"> cognitive<\/span> delays.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism in the earlier DSM-IV by the lack of delay or deviance in early language development. Additionally, individuals diagnosed with Asperger syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays. PDD-NOS was considered &#8220;subthreshold autism&#8221; and &#8220;atypical autism&#8221; because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties). In the DSM-5, both of these diagnoses have been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Autism spectrum disorders are considered to be on a spectrum because each individual with ASD expresses the disorder uniquely and has varying degrees of functionality. Many have above-average intellectual abilities and excel in visual skills, music, math, and the arts, while others have significant disabilities and are unable to live independently. About 25 percent of individuals with ASD are nonverbal; however, they may learn to communicate using other means.<\/p>\n<h5>Social Communication Symptoms<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Social impairments in children with autism can be characterized by a distinctive lack of intuition about others. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Infants with ASD show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Toddlers with ASD differ<span class=\"import-Hyperlink\"> more<\/span> strikingly from social norms; for example, they may show less eye contact and turn-taking and may not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves. Individuals with severe forms of ASD do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.<\/p>\n<h5>Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Children with ASD may exhibit repetitive or restricted behavior, including:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Stereotypy\u2014repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.<\/li>\n<li>Compulsive behavior\u2014exhibiting intention to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines.<\/li>\n<li>Sameness\u2014resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or sticking to an unvarying pattern of daily activities.<\/li>\n<li>Restricted behavior\u2014limits in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.<\/li>\n<li>Self-injury\u2014movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin picking, hand biting, and head banging.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image18-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.17\" width=\"264\" height=\"266\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.17 \u2013 A boy stacking cans.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote30anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote30sym\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h5>Etiology<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">While specific causes of ASD have yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the research literature that may contribute to its development. These risk factors include genetics, prenatal and<span class=\"import-Hyperlink\"> perinatal<\/span> factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors.<\/p>\n<h5>Genetics<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">ASD affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; thus, it is categorized as a neuro-developmental disorder. The results of family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of ASD and other pervasive developmental disorders. Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of ASD in siblings of children with ASD is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the general population. In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate among monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. It appears that there is no single gene that can account for ASD; instead, there seem to be multiple genes involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups. It is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations or by combinations of common genetic variants.<\/p>\n<h5>The Diversity of the Autism Spectrum<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The rainbow-colored infinity symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as the greater neurodiversity movement. The neurodiversity movement suggests that diverse neurological conditions appear as a result of normal variations in the human genome. It challenges the idea that such neurological differences are inherently pathological, instead asserting that differences should be recognized and respected as a social category on a par with gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability status.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image19-2.png\" alt=\"Figure 8.18\" width=\"198\" height=\"153\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.18 \u2013 A symbol of the autism spectrum.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote31anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote31sym\">31<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h5>Prenatal and Perinatal Factors<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for ASD. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (such as valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium (the earliest stool of an infant) in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to ASD, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in children with ASD than in developing youth without ASD.<\/p>\n<h5>Environmental Factors<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Evidence for environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies. In the last few decades, controversy surrounded the idea that vaccinations may be the cause for many cases of autism; however, these theories lack scientific evidence and are biologically implausible. Even still, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.<\/p>\n<h5>Treatment<\/h5>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">There is no known cure for ASD, and treatment tends to focus on management of symptoms. The main goals when treating children with ASD are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote32anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote32sym\">32<\/a><\/sup> Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care can reduce individuals\u2019 difficulties while helping them learn new skills and make the most of their strengths.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The wide range of issues facing people with ASD means that there is no single best treatment for ASD.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote33anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote33sym\">33<\/a><\/sup> So treatment is typically tailored to the individual person&#8217;s needs. Intensive, sustained special-education programs and behavior therapy yearly in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. The most widely used therapy <strong>is<\/strong> <strong>applied behavior analysis<\/strong> (ABA); other available approaches include developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote34anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote34sym\">34<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-NormalWeb\" style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/168\/2023\/12\/image20-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Figure 8.19\" width=\"344\" height=\"277\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Figure 8.19 \u2013 A boy with ASD receiving therapy.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote35anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote35sym\">35<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for young children with ASD. Although evidence-based interventions for children with ASD vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication, and social skills while minimizing behaviors that are thought to be problematic.<sup class=\"import-FootnoteReference\"><a id=\"sdfootnote36anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote36sym\">36<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h3>Conclusion<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In this chapter we covered,<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Piaget\u2019s preoperational stage.<\/li>\n<li>Vygotsky\u2019s sociocultural theory.<\/li>\n<li>Information processing.<\/li>\n<li>How young children understand the world.<\/li>\n<li>Typical progression of cognitive and language development (milestones).<\/li>\n<li>Early childhood education.<\/li>\n<li>Autism spectrum disorder.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the next chapter, we will finish covering early childhood education by looking at how children understand themselves and interact with the world.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote25sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote25anc\">25<\/a> Image by Seattle City Council is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote26sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote26anc\">26<\/a> Gordon, A. M., &amp; Browne, K. W. (2016). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. (3rd ed.). Cengage: Boston.<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote27sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote27anc\">27<\/a> Image by Children\u2019s Bureau Centennial<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote28sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote28anc\">28<\/a> Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote29sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote29anc\">29<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote30sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote30anc\">30<\/a> Image by Countincr is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote31sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote31anc\">31<\/a> Image is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote32sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote32anc\">32<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote33sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote33anc\">33<\/a> Autism Spectrum Disorder by the National Institute of Mental Health is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote34sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote34anc\">34<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote35sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote35anc\">35<\/a> Image by Edwards Air Force Base is in the public domain<\/div>\n<div id=\"sdfootnote36sym\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote36anc\">36<\/a> Children\u2019s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":127,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-494","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":456,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/494","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/127"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/494\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":611,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/494\/revisions\/611"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/456"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/494\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=494"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=494"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=494"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/accguidancestrategies\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=494"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}