{"id":993,"date":"2025-04-30T18:32:21","date_gmt":"2025-04-30T18:32:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=993"},"modified":"2025-07-16T22:27:08","modified_gmt":"2025-07-16T22:27:08","slug":"divergent-cultural-characteristics","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/chapter\/divergent-cultural-characteristics\/","title":{"raw":"Divergent Cultural Characteristics","rendered":"Divergent Cultural Characteristics"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain divergent cultural characteristics.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understand the impact of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe explicit-rule\/implicit rule, high-context\/low-context, and uncertainty-accepting\/rejecting aspects of culture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explore how time orientation, short- and long-term orientation, materialism, and power distance influence communication.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-298\" data-scroll-anchor=\"true\">\r\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\r\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\">\r\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\r\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\r\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\r\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"21eab7b4-13e1-458c-8f2f-d2d8b42fe12d\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\r\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\r\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words light\">\r\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"0\" data-end=\"655\">While many cultures share commonalities, they also differ meaningfully, influencing how people communicate and collaborate. These differences\u2014what we\u2019ll call <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2234\"]divergent cultural characteristics[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>- can influence everything from how teams make decisions to how coworkers handle conflict or build trust. This section will examine how cultural dimensions, such as individualism versus collectivism, communication styles, and attitudes toward time and authority, influence workplace communication in global and diverse environments. Understanding these contrasts will help you navigate and adapt more effectively to cultural differences in organizational settings. <span style=\"font-size: 1em; text-align: initial;\">Cultures reflect a varied and divergent range of values, symbols, and meanings. People have viewpoints, and their interactions with communities shape them. Let\u2019s examine several points of divergence across cultures.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/article>&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignnone size-large wp-image-673\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_673\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"413\"]<img class=\"wp-image-673\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/231\/2021\/04\/image9-1024x683-1.jpg\" alt=\"Image of four people holding hands criss crossed around a circle\" width=\"413\" height=\"275\" \/> <em>Image of teamwork.\u00a0<\/em><span class=\"c2 c22\">Source: Pixabay.com<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"h.w06wnl82sbp6\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\">The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures (Hofstede, 2005<span class=\"c2\">). He found that in <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2240\"]individualistic cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> like the United States and Canada, people value individual freedom and personal independence and perceive their world primarily from their viewpoint. They perceive themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making decisions and impacting their lives. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Cultural view is not an either\/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">In contrast, others focus on a collective viewpoint. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2239\"]Collectivist cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (Hofstede, 1982), including many in Asia and South America, as well as many Indigenous cultures, prioritize the needs of the nation, community, family, or workers. Ownership and private property are two ways to examine this difference. Property is almost exclusively private in some cultures, while others tend toward community ownership. The collectively owned resource returns benefits to the community. Water, for example, has long been viewed as a community resource, much like air. However, that has changed as businesses and organizations have purchased water rights and gained control over resources. How does someone raised in a culture that emphasizes the community interact with someone raised in a primarily individualistic culture? How could tensions be expressed, and how might this point of divergence influence interactions? In the following sections, these viewpoints will be examined. <\/span>Trompenaar\u2019s research (1998) suggested that cultures may change more quickly than we realize and showed that Mexico, the former communist countries of Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union have high levels of individualism. Mexico\u2019s involvement in NAFTA and the global economy could explain the shift from a communitarian culture. This contrasts with Hofstede\u2019s earlier research, which found these countries to be collectivist, highlighting the culture's dynamic and complex nature. Countries with high communitarianism include Germany, China, France, Japan, and Singapore.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"h.o6tovwa9n0ta\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule Cultures<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\">Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual or by observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures communicate rules in the same way. In an <span class=\"c0\"><strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2241\"]explicit-rule culture[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>,<\/span> where rules are communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced before the gathering. There may be no agenda in an <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2242\"]implicit-rule culture[\/pb_glossary] <\/strong>where rules are often understood and communicated nonverbally<span class=\"c2\">. Everyone knows why they are gathered and each member's role, even though the expectations may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral expectations may all be understood; however, to a person from outside this culture, it may prove a challenge to comprehend the rules of the context. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">\"Outsiders\" often communicate their \u201cotherness\u201d by not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or how to initiate a conversation if the rules are unclear. While it may be helpful to know that implicit-rule cultures are often more tolerant of deviations from the understood rules, the newcomer will be wise to learn by observing quietly and to conduct as much research ahead of the event as possible.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div>\r\n<h2>High-Context and Low-Context Cultures<\/h2>\r\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2243\"]High-context cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are replete with implied meanings beyond the words on the surface and even body language that may not be obvious to people unfamiliar with the context. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2244\"]Low-context cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are typically more direct and tend to use words to attempt to convey precise meaning. <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">For example, an agreement in a high-context culture might be verbal because the parties are familiar with each other\u2019s families, histories, and social positions. This knowledge is sufficient for enforcing the agreement because the shared understanding is implied and highly contextual. To implement the deal, a low-context culture typically requires highly detailed, written contracts that both parties sign, often mediated through specialists such as lawyers. This is low context because the written agreement spells out all the details so that not much is left to the imagination or \u201ccontext.\u201d<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">High Context and Low Context Communication<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nWatch the video below to illustrate how communication can be altered when two cultures communicate.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/qKViQSnW-UA?si=Kr0ZYt8Qyp0CEx0N[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">When people meet each other for the first time, they often use their previous knowledge to understand their current context. People also do this to reduce uncertainty. Some cultures, such as the United States and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to minimize the element of surprise. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"c3\">Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975)<span class=\"c2\"> developed the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2236\"]Uncertainty Reduction theory[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0to examine this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">There is a<span class=\"c2\"> high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases, and our uncertainty decreases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty decreases, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding to indicate agreement, will be expressed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication interactions tend to be less personal and intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication features more reciprocity or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"c3\">Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are related to increased liking of the other person.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h2 id=\"h.9i7gpaosa8w3\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Time Orientation<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\">Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall (1987) state that\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2237\"]<span class=\"c0\">monochronic time-oriented<\/span>\u00a0cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> consider one thing at a time, whereas\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2245\"]<span class=\"c0\">polychronic time-oriented<\/span><span class=\"c2\"> cultures<\/span>[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><span class=\"c2\"> schedule many things at one time, and time is considered more fluid. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochromatic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. Canada, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochromatic time orientation. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time; business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but their actual start time may be another matter. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may be around 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the hosts are not quite ready to receive you.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"c3\">When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from<span class=\"c0\">\u00a0polychromatic cultures\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"c2\">will be used to foreigners\u2019 tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established event times. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in various ways, and understanding this can help you communicate more effectively.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Virtual Communication<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nIn today\u2019s challenging world of economic restrictions and pandemics, it is not unusual for team members to have important meetings in virtual space. If you are working on an international team, setting up a meeting is significant because of the time zone differences. This often means someone must get up early or work late into the evening. In customer interactions, employees sometimes must make or take calls from home, which means taking time away from their families and being conscious of what background will appear on the screen.\r\n\r\nOften, small things go a long way toward success. Helpful tips include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Putting your time zone in the signature of your email or on the biographical section of your social media profile<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Getting team members to use 24-hour UTC\/GMT<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Using time management apps such as Boomerang<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nOther issues to consider are language and translation concerns, internet access issues, and the unique impact of cultural values placed on a virtual message. Face-to-face interaction is frequently necessary in high-context cultures, where relationships are valued. Sometimes, people are just reluctant to reply to messages from people they don\u2019t know.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"h.ks777i5z67w7\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">Do you want your reward right now, or are you willing to dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results do not materialize. Geert Hofstede discusses the relationship between time orientation and culture as a \u201ctime horizon,\u201d underscoring the individual's perspective within a cultural context. Many Asian countries, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including Canada, tend to adopt a more short-term approach to life and results. Indigenous peoples are known for holding a <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2248\"]long-term orientation[\/pb_glossary] <\/strong>driven by values of deep, long-term reflection and community consultation. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">If you work within a culture with a <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2249\"]short-term orientation[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, you may need to emphasize reciprocating greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, your host will appreciate your promptness if you send a thank-you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner. While there may be a respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honour, a reflection of identity and integrity. A short-term-oriented culture also values Personal stability and consistency, contributing to a sense of predictability and familiarity. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Long-term orientation is often characterized by persistence, thrift, and frugality, as well as an order of relationships based on age and status. A sense of shame is also observed across generations, affecting the family and community. What an individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and extended family members.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"h.ycwh9x7cn0pj\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Direct versus Indirect<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">In the United States, business correspondence is generally expected to be concise and direct. \u201cWhat can I do for you?\u201d is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it is an accepted way of asking the caller to state their business. In some cultures, it is appropriate to make direct personal observations, such as \u201cYou\u2019ve changed your hairstyle.\u201d In others, it may be observed but never spoken of in polite company. In indirect cultures, such as those in Latin America, business conversations often begin with discussions of the weather, family, or other topics as partners get to know each other, long before the business topic is introduced. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before entering it, as a social faux pas or error can have a significant impact.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"h.cvdxpkcnzjf1\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Materialism versus Relationships<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\">Members of a<span class=\"c0\">\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2251\"]materialistic culture[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"c2\">place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, power, and social rank. Suppose you consider the plate of food before you and the labour required to harvest the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal. In that case, you focus more on the relationships with its production than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a luxury and communicate your ability to acquire and offer a delicacy, but it also represents a significant effort. Cultures differ in their views of material objects and their relationships to them, with some valuing people and relationships more highly than the objects themselves. The United States and Japan are often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place more emphasis on relationships.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 id=\"h.gvwpd2gpb5er\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Low-Power versus High-Power Distance<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">In <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2252\"]low-power distance cultures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, according to Hofstede (2009), people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their formal roles as employees and managers. In a <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2253\"]high-power distance culture[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input. Suppose you work with people from a high-power distance culture. In that case, you may need to provide extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion, as their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or know there is a significant problem. You may lose valuable information if you are sensitive to cultural orientation and power distance.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">To summarize, cultures have distinct orientations regarding rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon, motivation for achievement and success, directness, materialism, and power distance.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Cultures have distinct orientations regarding rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon, masculinity, directness, materialism, and power distance.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Attribution<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nThis chapter is adapted from \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/openpress.usask.ca\/businesswriting\/chapter\/intercultural-communication\/\">Business Writing for Everyone<\/a>\u201d by Arley Cruthers (on <a href=\"https:\/\/openpress.usask.ca\/\">openpress.usask.ca<\/a>), \"<a href=\"https:\/\/irl.umsl.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&amp;context=oer\">Intercultural Communication<\/a>\" by Shannon Ahrndt, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.senecapolytechnic.ca\/communicationessentialsforbusiness\/chapter\/4-4-intercultural-communication\/\">Communication Essentials for Business<\/a>\" by Suzan Last, and \"Intercultural Communication for the Community College\" by Karen Krumrey. Each source is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain divergent cultural characteristics.<\/li>\n<li>Understand the impact of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures.<\/li>\n<li>Describe explicit-rule\/implicit rule, high-context\/low-context, and uncertainty-accepting\/rejecting aspects of culture.<\/li>\n<li>Explore how time orientation, short- and long-term orientation, materialism, and power distance influence communication.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-298\" data-scroll-anchor=\"true\">\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\">\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"21eab7b4-13e1-458c-8f2f-d2d8b42fe12d\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words light\">\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"0\" data-end=\"655\">While many cultures share commonalities, they also differ meaningfully, influencing how people communicate and collaborate. These differences\u2014what we\u2019ll call <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2234\">divergent cultural characteristics<\/a><\/strong>&#8211; can influence everything from how teams make decisions to how coworkers handle conflict or build trust. This section will examine how cultural dimensions, such as individualism versus collectivism, communication styles, and attitudes toward time and authority, influence workplace communication in global and diverse environments. Understanding these contrasts will help you navigate and adapt more effectively to cultural differences in organizational settings. <span style=\"font-size: 1em; text-align: initial;\">Cultures reflect a varied and divergent range of values, symbols, and meanings. People have viewpoints, and their interactions with communities shape them. Let\u2019s examine several points of divergence across cultures.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignnone size-large wp-image-673\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_673\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-673\" style=\"width: 413px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-673\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/ppsccom2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/231\/2021\/04\/image9-1024x683-1.jpg\" alt=\"Image of four people holding hands criss crossed around a circle\" width=\"413\" height=\"275\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-673\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Image of teamwork.\u00a0<\/em><span class=\"c2 c22\">Source: Pixabay.com<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"h.w06wnl82sbp6\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\">The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures (Hofstede, 2005<span class=\"c2\">). He found that in <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2240\">individualistic cultures<\/a><\/strong> like the United States and Canada, people value individual freedom and personal independence and perceive their world primarily from their viewpoint. They perceive themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making decisions and impacting their lives. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Cultural view is not an either\/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">In contrast, others focus on a collective viewpoint. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2239\">Collectivist cultures<\/a><\/strong> (Hofstede, 1982), including many in Asia and South America, as well as many Indigenous cultures, prioritize the needs of the nation, community, family, or workers. Ownership and private property are two ways to examine this difference. Property is almost exclusively private in some cultures, while others tend toward community ownership. The collectively owned resource returns benefits to the community. Water, for example, has long been viewed as a community resource, much like air. However, that has changed as businesses and organizations have purchased water rights and gained control over resources. How does someone raised in a culture that emphasizes the community interact with someone raised in a primarily individualistic culture? How could tensions be expressed, and how might this point of divergence influence interactions? In the following sections, these viewpoints will be examined. <\/span>Trompenaar\u2019s research (1998) suggested that cultures may change more quickly than we realize and showed that Mexico, the former communist countries of Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union have high levels of individualism. Mexico\u2019s involvement in NAFTA and the global economy could explain the shift from a communitarian culture. This contrasts with Hofstede\u2019s earlier research, which found these countries to be collectivist, highlighting the culture&#8217;s dynamic and complex nature. Countries with high communitarianism include Germany, China, France, Japan, and Singapore.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"h.o6tovwa9n0ta\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule Cultures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\">Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual or by observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures communicate rules in the same way. In an <span class=\"c0\"><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2241\">explicit-rule culture<\/a><\/strong>,<\/span> where rules are communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced before the gathering. There may be no agenda in an <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2242\">implicit-rule culture<\/a> <\/strong>where rules are often understood and communicated nonverbally<span class=\"c2\">. Everyone knows why they are gathered and each member&#8217;s role, even though the expectations may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral expectations may all be understood; however, to a person from outside this culture, it may prove a challenge to comprehend the rules of the context. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">&#8220;Outsiders&#8221; often communicate their \u201cotherness\u201d by not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or how to initiate a conversation if the rules are unclear. While it may be helpful to know that implicit-rule cultures are often more tolerant of deviations from the understood rules, the newcomer will be wise to learn by observing quietly and to conduct as much research ahead of the event as possible.<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<h2>High-Context and Low-Context Cultures<\/h2>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2243\">High-context cultures<\/a><\/strong> are replete with implied meanings beyond the words on the surface and even body language that may not be obvious to people unfamiliar with the context. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2244\">Low-context cultures<\/a><\/strong> are typically more direct and tend to use words to attempt to convey precise meaning. <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">For example, an agreement in a high-context culture might be verbal because the parties are familiar with each other\u2019s families, histories, and social positions. This knowledge is sufficient for enforcing the agreement because the shared understanding is implied and highly contextual. To implement the deal, a low-context culture typically requires highly detailed, written contracts that both parties sign, often mediated through specialists such as lawyers. This is low context because the written agreement spells out all the details so that not much is left to the imagination or \u201ccontext.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">High Context and Low Context Communication<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Watch the video below to illustrate how communication can be altered when two cultures communicate.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"What Is The Difference Between a High-Context and Low-Context Culture?\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/qKViQSnW-UA?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">When people meet each other for the first time, they often use their previous knowledge to understand their current context. People also do this to reduce uncertainty. Some cultures, such as the United States and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to minimize the element of surprise. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c3\">Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975)<span class=\"c2\"> developed the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2236\">Uncertainty Reduction theory<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0to examine this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:<\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li class=\"c3\">There is a<span class=\"c2\"> high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases, and our uncertainty decreases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c3\">Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty decreases, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding to indicate agreement, will be expressed.<\/li>\n<li class=\"c3\">When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.<\/li>\n<li class=\"c3\">When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication interactions tend to be less personal and intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.<\/li>\n<li class=\"c3\">When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication features more reciprocity or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.<\/li>\n<li class=\"c3\">Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.<\/li>\n<li class=\"c3\">Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are related to increased liking of the other person.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2 id=\"h.9i7gpaosa8w3\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Time Orientation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\">Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall (1987) state that\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2237\"><span class=\"c0\">monochronic time-oriented<\/span>\u00a0cultures<\/a><\/strong> consider one thing at a time, whereas\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2245\"><span class=\"c0\">polychronic time-oriented<\/span><span class=\"c2\"> cultures<\/span><\/a><\/strong><span class=\"c2\"> schedule many things at one time, and time is considered more fluid. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochromatic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. Canada, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochromatic time orientation. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time; business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but their actual start time may be another matter. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may be around 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the hosts are not quite ready to receive you.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c3\">When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from<span class=\"c0\">\u00a0polychromatic cultures\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"c2\">will be used to foreigners\u2019 tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established event times. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in various ways, and understanding this can help you communicate more effectively.<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Virtual Communication<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>In today\u2019s challenging world of economic restrictions and pandemics, it is not unusual for team members to have important meetings in virtual space. If you are working on an international team, setting up a meeting is significant because of the time zone differences. This often means someone must get up early or work late into the evening. In customer interactions, employees sometimes must make or take calls from home, which means taking time away from their families and being conscious of what background will appear on the screen.<\/p>\n<p>Often, small things go a long way toward success. Helpful tips include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Putting your time zone in the signature of your email or on the biographical section of your social media profile<\/li>\n<li>Getting team members to use 24-hour UTC\/GMT<\/li>\n<li>Using time management apps such as Boomerang<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Other issues to consider are language and translation concerns, internet access issues, and the unique impact of cultural values placed on a virtual message. Face-to-face interaction is frequently necessary in high-context cultures, where relationships are valued. Sometimes, people are just reluctant to reply to messages from people they don\u2019t know.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"h.ks777i5z67w7\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">Do you want your reward right now, or are you willing to dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results do not materialize. Geert Hofstede discusses the relationship between time orientation and culture as a \u201ctime horizon,\u201d underscoring the individual&#8217;s perspective within a cultural context. Many Asian countries, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including Canada, tend to adopt a more short-term approach to life and results. Indigenous peoples are known for holding a <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2248\">long-term orientation<\/a> <\/strong>driven by values of deep, long-term reflection and community consultation. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">If you work within a culture with a <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2249\">short-term orientation<\/a><\/strong>, you may need to emphasize reciprocating greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, your host will appreciate your promptness if you send a thank-you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner. While there may be a respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honour, a reflection of identity and integrity. A short-term-oriented culture also values Personal stability and consistency, contributing to a sense of predictability and familiarity. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Long-term orientation is often characterized by persistence, thrift, and frugality, as well as an order of relationships based on age and status. A sense of shame is also observed across generations, affecting the family and community. What an individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and extended family members.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"h.ycwh9x7cn0pj\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Direct versus Indirect<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">In the United States, business correspondence is generally expected to be concise and direct. \u201cWhat can I do for you?\u201d is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it is an accepted way of asking the caller to state their business. In some cultures, it is appropriate to make direct personal observations, such as \u201cYou\u2019ve changed your hairstyle.\u201d In others, it may be observed but never spoken of in polite company. In indirect cultures, such as those in Latin America, business conversations often begin with discussions of the weather, family, or other topics as partners get to know each other, long before the business topic is introduced. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before entering it, as a social faux pas or error can have a significant impact.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"h.cvdxpkcnzjf1\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Materialism versus Relationships<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\">Members of a<span class=\"c0\">\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2251\">materialistic culture<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"c2\">place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, power, and social rank. Suppose you consider the plate of food before you and the labour required to harvest the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal. In that case, you focus more on the relationships with its production than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a luxury and communicate your ability to acquire and offer a delicacy, but it also represents a significant effort. Cultures differ in their views of material objects and their relationships to them, with some valuing people and relationships more highly than the objects themselves. The United States and Japan are often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place more emphasis on relationships.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"h.gvwpd2gpb5er\" class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c8\">Low-Power versus High-Power Distance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">In <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2252\">low-power distance cultures<\/a><\/strong>, according to Hofstede (2009), people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their formal roles as employees and managers. In a <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_993_2253\">high-power distance culture<\/a><\/strong>, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input. Suppose you work with people from a high-power distance culture. In that case, you may need to provide extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion, as their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or know there is a significant problem. You may lose valuable information if you are sensitive to cultural orientation and power distance.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c3\"><span class=\"c2\">To summarize, cultures have distinct orientations regarding rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon, motivation for achievement and success, directness, materialism, and power distance.<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Cultures have distinct orientations regarding rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon, masculinity, directness, materialism, and power distance.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Attribution<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>This chapter is adapted from \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/openpress.usask.ca\/businesswriting\/chapter\/intercultural-communication\/\">Business Writing for Everyone<\/a>\u201d by Arley Cruthers (on <a href=\"https:\/\/openpress.usask.ca\/\">openpress.usask.ca<\/a>), &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/irl.umsl.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&amp;context=oer\">Intercultural Communication<\/a>&#8221; by Shannon Ahrndt, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.senecapolytechnic.ca\/communicationessentialsforbusiness\/chapter\/4-4-intercultural-communication\/\">Communication Essentials for Business<\/a>&#8221; by Suzan Last, and &#8220;Intercultural Communication for the Community College&#8221; by Karen Krumrey. Each source is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_993_2234\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2234\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>the ways in which cultures differ from one another, including their values, beliefs, and behaviors. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2240\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2240\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>people value individual freedom and personal independence and perceive their world primarily from their viewpoint.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2239\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2239\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>focus on the needs of the nation, community, family, or workers.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2241\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2241\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>rules are communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced before the gathering.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2242\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2242\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>rules are often understood and communicated nonverbally.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2243\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2243\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>are replete with implied meanings beyond the words on the surface and even body language that may not be obvious to people unfamiliar with the context.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2244\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2244\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>are typically more direct and tend to use words to attempt to convey precise meaning.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2236\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2236\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>suggests that when individuals first meet, they are motivated to reduce uncertainty about each other through communication. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2237\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2237\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>These cultures consider one thing at a time. Interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its specific time.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2245\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2245\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>schedule many things at one time, and time is considered more fluid.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2248\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2248\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>is often marked by persistence, thrift, and frugality, and an order of relationships based on age and status.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2249\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2249\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>values Personal stability and consistency, contributing to a sense of predictability and familiarity.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2251\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2251\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, power, and social rank.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2252\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2252\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their formal roles as employees and managers.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_993_2253\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_993_2253\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":133,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-993","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":1573,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/993","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/133"}],"version-history":[{"count":34,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/993\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2611,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/993\/revisions\/2611"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1573"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/993\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=993"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=993"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=993"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=993"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}