{"id":37,"date":"2021-03-06T17:45:14","date_gmt":"2021-03-06T17:45:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/chapter\/rhetoric-and-the-modes-of-appeal\/"},"modified":"2025-07-17T21:15:55","modified_gmt":"2025-07-17T21:15:55","slug":"rhetoric-and-the-modes-of-appeal","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/chapter\/rhetoric-and-the-modes-of-appeal\/","title":{"raw":"Aristotle and the Modes of Appeal","rendered":"Aristotle and the Modes of Appeal"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this chapter, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain Aristotle's definition of rhetoric.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Differentiate between the three modes of appeal: logos, pathos, and ethos.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Distinguish a rhetorical model of communication from other communication models.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>What is the Art of Rhetoric?<\/h2>\r\nHave you ever discussed a controversial matter, after which you changed your opinion? Have you ever argued with a friend or family member that resulted in you or the other person more aggressively defending a position that became less defensible as the argument progressed? Have you ever found yourself carried away by someone\u2019s bad idea, only to ask yourself later, \u201cWhat was I thinking?!\u201d\r\n\r\nIf you answered \u201cyes\u201d to any of these questions, the art of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong> might help you understand exactly what happened.\r\n\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"213\"]<strong>Rhetoric<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary], defined most broadly, is the art of persuasion. Since any communication can be created to influence opinions or behaviors, rhetorical principles can be found in speeches, written documents, images, films, gestures, and other non-verbal modes of expression.\r\n\r\nBy studying rhetorical principles and their use by the authors of different types of communication, we can cultivate two essential skills: recognizing how we are persuaded and using those tools to persuade others for our professional purposes.\r\n\r\nFirst, we can better understand how we are persuaded to believe the messages we find convincing. As humans, we often accept an idea about the world not only based on available evidence but also because we trust in the source of the information. Additionally, how we perceive the information as fitting in with our beliefs about the nature of reality can have an effect. By considering the principles of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>, we can isolate elements of an act of persuasion to better understand how reasonable a message is.\r\n\r\nSecond, studying the art of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong> can help us communicate more effectively. Because we frequently use persuasion\u2014whether we\u2019re attempting to secure a job, trying to persuade a family member or colleague to help us with a difficult task, or even hoping to convince a friend to accept our opinion\u2014the ability to be persuasive is crucial for success in both our professional and personal lives.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">Because persuasion is a universal human activity, complex rhetorical traditions have developed among cultures worldwide. This textbook focuses on the European tradition of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>, which began to be documented in Athens in the fifth century BCE and continued to be studied, developed, and applied for nearly two and a half millennia.<\/span>\r\n\r\nAccording to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE), <strong>rhetoric<\/strong> is an art through which one can develop \u201can ability, in each [particular] case, to see the available means of persuasion\u201d (Kennedy, 1991, p. 36). This definition is essential for our purposes for two reasons.\r\n\r\nFirst, if we\u2019re not naturally charismatic, we may ask ourselves, \u201cCan I learn to be persuasive?\u201d Aristotle observes that some people are naturally persuasive, while others develop the skill through study and practice.\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">Thus, he anticipates this question by describing\u00a0<strong>rhetoric<\/strong>\u00a0as a\u00a0<em>techn\u0113<\/em>\u00a0(pronounced \u201cTEKH<em>-nay<\/em>\"), that is, as an art or skill with rules that can be learned (Kennedy, 1991, p. 29).<\/span> Because some people have a knack for persuasion, others seem to accept their ideas even when they are not very good. We must hone our persuasive skills to help our audience accept our message. Otherwise, a potential audience could risk being misled by an uninformed opinion expressed by a particularly charismatic speaker or writer.\r\n\r\nSecond, by referring to the \u201cavailable means of persuasion,\u201d Aristotle points to what are also known as the three<strong> [pb_glossary id=\"258\"]modes of appeal[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>:\u00a0 [pb_glossary id=\"219\"]ethos[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0 [pb_glossary id=\"220\"]pathos[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"221\"]logos[\/pb_glossary]. The <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> are distinct ways of engaging an audience and are particularly useful for evaluating others\u2019 messages and helping us carefully design our messages. Analyzing a persuasive message using these tools can give us insight into whether the message is compelling. Considering them while composing a document or preparing a presentation can increase the likelihood that our audience will be persuaded by our message.\r\n<h2>The Three Modes of Appeal<\/h2>\r\nWhile Aristotle\u2019s approach to [pb_glossary id=\"213\"]<strong>rhetoric<\/strong> [\/pb_glossary] informed rhetorical training in the European tradition to varying degrees, rhetorical scholars in the twentieth century became particularly interested in his theories. These scholars started a movement called the Neo-Aristotelian school of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>. While the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"258\"]modes of appeal[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> began with Aristotle, their description below reflects the influence of these more recent scholars.\r\n\r\nThese <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> are simple yet profound tools that enable us to analyze the persuasive qualities of messages composed by others and to design more effective messages ourselves.\r\n\r\nBefore we dive into each mode, watch the video below for a brief introduction to each one.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=aUpiy67_nt4[\/embed]\r\n\r\nNow that you understand <strong>logos<\/strong>, <strong>pathos<\/strong>, and <strong>ethos<\/strong>, let's discuss each in detail.\r\n<h2>Logos: Appeal to Logic<\/h2>\r\nLogic. Reason. Rationality. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"221\"]Logos[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is brainy, intellectual, cool, calm, collected, and objective.\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\">When authors or speakers rely on <strong>logos<\/strong>, they use logic, careful structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience. Authors or speakers can appeal to an audience\u2019s intellect by using information that can be fact-checked (using multiple sources) and thorough explanations to support key points. Additionally, providing a solid and non-biased explanation of one's argument is an excellent way for an author to invoke <strong>logos<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\">For example, an instructor wants to convince their students that they should complete their homework. The instructor might explain that they understand everyone is busy and they have other classes (non-biased), but the homework will help the students get a better grade on their test (explanation). The instructor could add to this explanation by providing statistics showing the number of students who failed and didn\u2019t complete their homework versus the number of students who passed and did complete their homework (factual evidence).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\">Logical appeals rest on rational modes of thinking<strong>,<\/strong> such as:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Comparison -\u00a0<\/strong>comparing one thing (about your topic) and another similar thing to help support your claim. The comparison must be fair and valid\u2014the things being compared must share significant traits of similarity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Cause\/effect thinking -\u00a0<\/strong>you argue that X has caused Y or X is likely to cause Y to help support your claim. Be careful with the latter\u2014it can be difficult to predict that something \"will\" happen in the future.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Deductive reasoning -\u00a0<\/strong>starting with a broad, general claim\/example and using it to support a more specific point or claim.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Inductive reasoning -\u00a0<\/strong>using several specific examples or cases to make a broad generalization.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Exemplification -\u00a0<\/strong>use of many examples or various evidence to support a single point.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Elaboration<\/strong> - moving beyond just including a fact but explaining the significance or relevance of that fact.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Coherent thought<\/strong> - maintaining a well-organized line of reasoning, not repeating ideas or jumping around.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2>Pathos: Appeal to Emotions<\/h2>\r\nWhen [pb_glossary id=\"214\"]<strong>rhetor<\/strong>s[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0rely on [pb_glossary id=\"220\"]<strong>pathos<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary], it means that they are trying to tap into the audience's emotions, values, and beliefs to encourage them to consider and respond to a claim. Authors or speakers using <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals want the audience to feel something: anger, pride, joy, rage, or happiness.\u00a0 For example, many of us have seen the ASPCA commercials that use photographs of injured puppies or sad-looking kittens and slow, depressing music to persuade their audience to donate money emotionally.\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>Pathos<\/strong>-based rhetorical strategies are any strategies that get the audience to \"open up\" to the topic,\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">the argument, or the\u00a0<strong>rhetor<\/strong>. While\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong>\u00a0appeals usually provide a basis for persuasion,\u00a0<strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals can provide an emotional context for arguments<\/span>\u00a0and thereby help an audience receive and respond to a message.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>Pathos<\/strong> appeals may also attempt to appeal to the values or beliefs that the audience holds. Such values or beliefs may include:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">justice<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">equality<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">Dignity for all humankind<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">self-preservation<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">patriotism<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">tradition<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"no-indent\">specific social, religious, or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism, etc.).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\">Pathos strategies are not only limited to using emotional appeals in your argument; they may also include:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>providing expressive<strong> descriptions<\/strong> of people, places, or events that help the reader to feel or experience those events<\/li>\r\n \t<li>creating <strong>vivid imagery<\/strong> of people, places, or events that helps the audience feel like they are seeing\u00a0 those events<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sharing<strong>\u00a0personal stories<\/strong> that make the audience feel a connection to, or empathy for, the person being described<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Using<strong> emotion-laden<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>vocabulary <\/strong>puts the audience into that specific emotional mindset (what is the author or speaker trying to make the audience feel, and how are they doing that?)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Using any information that will <strong>evoke an emotional response<\/strong> <strong>from the audience<\/strong>. This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for the person\/group\/event being discussed, or perhaps a connection to or rejection of the person\/group\/event being discussed.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWhen reading a text or listening to a speech, locate when the speaker is trying to convince the reader using emotions. Remember that <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals must be developed carefully, with a clear understanding of an audience's values and beliefs. An audience may regard an excessive or overly aggressive emotional appeal as manipulative or overcompensating for weak\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong>.\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercise #1: Identify Pathos Appeals<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"220\"]Pathos[\/pb_glossary] is all about tapping into the emotions of your audience to get them to agree with one of your claims. Advertisements commonly use such appeals since advertisers want you to react somehow. They may want you to buy a specific product they are selling, donate to a particular charity, or even take an action that will benefit only yourself. The most effective advertisements, then, are the ones that make an <strong>appropriate<\/strong> <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeal to their audience.\r\n\r\nWatch both videos below. Each one is an advertisement. As you watch, consider the following questions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What action does the ad want you to take?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How is the ad appealing to your emotions?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do you consider the pathos appeals to be appropriate? Why or why not?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nFor the second question, see if you can identify at least three <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals.\r\n\r\n<strong>Video #1: Sarah\u00a0McLachlan SPCA Commercial<\/strong>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=IO9d2PpP7tQ&amp;t=4s\r\n\r\nLink to Original Video: <a href=\"http:\/\/tinyurl.com\/sarahmclach\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">tinyurl.com\/sarahmclach<\/span><\/a>\r\n\r\n<strong>Video #2: British Heart Foundation<\/strong>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8D86RqDQiYc\r\n\r\nLink to Original Video: <a href=\"http:\/\/tinyurl.com\/britheartfound\">tinyurl.com\/britheartfound<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1.424em; font-weight: bold;\">Ethos: Appeal to Values\/Trust<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Aristotle succinctly states that there are three things we trust other than logical proof:\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">goodwill<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">,\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">good<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">judgment<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">\u00a0(practical wisdom), and\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">good character<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"> (virtue) (Kennedy, 1991). All three are elements of\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ethos<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">, the mode of appeal that focuses on the speaker or author.<\/span>\u00a0Ultimately,\u00a0<strong>ethos<\/strong> refers to how the message reveals the character of the speaker or author; thus, good <strong>ethos<\/strong> is persuasive, and bad <strong>ethos<\/strong> naturally alienates an audience and sabotages persuasion.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Authors or speakers must demonstrate\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">goodwill<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"> toward their audience to persuade<\/span>\u00a0them. Rhetors who belittle their audience, disrespect them, or trivialize their concerns will generally find their audience unreceptive to their message.\r\n\r\nTo display <strong>good judgment<\/strong>, rhetors must demonstrate an understanding of their audience. On the one hand, they must show the audience that they understand the values that motivate them; on the other hand, they must provide the types of evidence for their claims that the audience will find most convincing, and thereby establish their<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"210\"]credibility[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>.\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>[pb_glossary id=\"210\"]Credibility[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> of speakers or authors is determined by their knowledge and expertise in the subject at hand. For example, if you are learning about Einstein\u2019s Theory of Relativity, would you rather learn from a professor of physics or a cousin who took two science classes in high school thirty years ago? It is fair to say that, in general, the professor of physics would have more <strong>credibility<\/strong> when discussing physics. To establish their <strong>credibility<\/strong>, <strong>rhetors<\/strong> may draw attention to who they are or what kinds of experience they have with the topic being discussed as an ethical appeal (i.e., \"Because I have experience with this topic\u2014and I know my stuff!\u2014you should trust what I am saying about this topic\"). Some authors or speakers do not have to establish their <strong>credibility<\/strong> because the audience already knows who they are and that they are credible.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>[pb_glossary id=\"259\"]Good character[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0is another aspect of <strong>ethos<\/strong>, and it<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>is different from <strong>credibility<\/strong> because it involves personal history and even personality traits. A person can be credible but lack <strong>character,<\/strong> or vice versa.\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">For example, in politics, sometimes the most experienced candidates- those who might be the most plausible candidates\u2014fail to win elections because voters do not accept their <strong>character<\/strong>.<\/span>\u00a0Politicians take pains to shape their <strong>character<\/strong> as leaders with the voters' interests at heart. Candidates who successfully prove to the voters (the audience) that they have the type of <strong>character<\/strong> that the voters can trust are more likely to win.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\">Thus, <strong>ethos<\/strong> comes down to trust. How can <strong>rhetors<\/strong> get the audience to trust them so that they will accept their argument? How can authors or speakers make themselves appear as credible speakers who embody the character traits that the audience values?<\/p>\r\nIn building ethical appeals, we see authors or speakers:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the intended audience (so that the audience will trust the speaker)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Using language, phrasing, imagery, or other writing styles common to people who hold those values, thereby \"talking the talk\" of people with those values (again, so that the audience is inclined to trust the speaker)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Referring to their experience and\/or authority with the topic (and therefore demonstrating their credibility)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Referring to their character or making an effort to build their character in the text<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Displaying their concern for the audience<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWhen reading or listening, you should always think about the <strong>rhetor\u2019s<\/strong> <strong>credibility<\/strong> regarding the subject and their <strong>character<\/strong>.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercise #2: Chapter Quiz<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nTest your understanding of the material in this chapter with the quiz below.\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"5\"]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"213\"]Rhetoric[\/pb_glossary] is a set of principles that allow a speaker or writer to persuade an audience to take a specific action.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Learning these principles will help us understand how messages persuade us and, most importantly, how we can use those principles to persuade others in professional contexts.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Aristotle is the most famous teacher of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>. He believed that anyone could learn the art of persuasion through practice. His three <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"258\"]modes of appeal[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<\/strong>are considered one of the best ways to persuade others.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The three <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> are <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"221\"]logos[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"220\"]pathos[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, and <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"219\"]ethos[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Logos\u00a0<\/strong>occurs when authors or speakers use logic, careful structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Pathos\u00a0<\/strong>occurs when authors or speakers tap into an audience's emotions to get them to agree with a claim.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ethos\u00a0<\/strong>occurs when authors or speakers appeal to an audience's values and try to establish their credibility and character.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>To be successful at persuasion, a person must use all three <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> when constructing their message. Ignoring any of them will make the message less effective at persuading an audience.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">References<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nKennedy,\u00a0G.\u00a0A. (1991).\u00a0<em>Aristotle on rhetoric: A theory of civic discourse<\/em>. Oxford University Press, USA.\r\n<h2>Attribution<\/h2>\r\nThis chapter is adapted from \"<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/csu-fyw-rhetoric\/chapter\/rhetorical-strategies-building-compelling-arguments\/\">A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing<\/a>\" by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel (on <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/\">Pressbooks@MSL<\/a>). It is licensed under the <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" rel=\"license\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain Aristotle&#8217;s definition of rhetoric.<\/li>\n<li>Differentiate between the three modes of appeal: logos, pathos, and ethos.<\/li>\n<li>Distinguish a rhetorical model of communication from other communication models.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>What is the Art of Rhetoric?<\/h2>\n<p>Have you ever discussed a controversial matter, after which you changed your opinion? Have you ever argued with a friend or family member that resulted in you or the other person more aggressively defending a position that became less defensible as the argument progressed? Have you ever found yourself carried away by someone\u2019s bad idea, only to ask yourself later, \u201cWhat was I thinking?!\u201d<\/p>\n<p>If you answered \u201cyes\u201d to any of these questions, the art of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong> might help you understand exactly what happened.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_213\"><strong>Rhetoric<\/strong><\/a>, defined most broadly, is the art of persuasion. Since any communication can be created to influence opinions or behaviors, rhetorical principles can be found in speeches, written documents, images, films, gestures, and other non-verbal modes of expression.<\/p>\n<p>By studying rhetorical principles and their use by the authors of different types of communication, we can cultivate two essential skills: recognizing how we are persuaded and using those tools to persuade others for our professional purposes.<\/p>\n<p>First, we can better understand how we are persuaded to believe the messages we find convincing. As humans, we often accept an idea about the world not only based on available evidence but also because we trust in the source of the information. Additionally, how we perceive the information as fitting in with our beliefs about the nature of reality can have an effect. By considering the principles of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>, we can isolate elements of an act of persuasion to better understand how reasonable a message is.<\/p>\n<p>Second, studying the art of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong> can help us communicate more effectively. Because we frequently use persuasion\u2014whether we\u2019re attempting to secure a job, trying to persuade a family member or colleague to help us with a difficult task, or even hoping to convince a friend to accept our opinion\u2014the ability to be persuasive is crucial for success in both our professional and personal lives.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">Because persuasion is a universal human activity, complex rhetorical traditions have developed among cultures worldwide. This textbook focuses on the European tradition of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>, which began to be documented in Athens in the fifth century BCE and continued to be studied, developed, and applied for nearly two and a half millennia.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>According to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE), <strong>rhetoric<\/strong> is an art through which one can develop \u201can ability, in each [particular] case, to see the available means of persuasion\u201d (Kennedy, 1991, p. 36). This definition is essential for our purposes for two reasons.<\/p>\n<p>First, if we\u2019re not naturally charismatic, we may ask ourselves, \u201cCan I learn to be persuasive?\u201d Aristotle observes that some people are naturally persuasive, while others develop the skill through study and practice.\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">Thus, he anticipates this question by describing\u00a0<strong>rhetoric<\/strong>\u00a0as a\u00a0<em>techn\u0113<\/em>\u00a0(pronounced \u201cTEKH<em>-nay<\/em>&#8220;), that is, as an art or skill with rules that can be learned (Kennedy, 1991, p. 29).<\/span> Because some people have a knack for persuasion, others seem to accept their ideas even when they are not very good. We must hone our persuasive skills to help our audience accept our message. Otherwise, a potential audience could risk being misled by an uninformed opinion expressed by a particularly charismatic speaker or writer.<\/p>\n<p>Second, by referring to the \u201cavailable means of persuasion,\u201d Aristotle points to what are also known as the three<strong> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_258\">modes of appeal<\/a><\/strong>:\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_219\">ethos<\/a>,\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_220\">pathos<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_221\">logos<\/a>. The <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> are distinct ways of engaging an audience and are particularly useful for evaluating others\u2019 messages and helping us carefully design our messages. Analyzing a persuasive message using these tools can give us insight into whether the message is compelling. Considering them while composing a document or preparing a presentation can increase the likelihood that our audience will be persuaded by our message.<\/p>\n<h2>The Three Modes of Appeal<\/h2>\n<p>While Aristotle\u2019s approach to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_213\"><strong>rhetoric<\/strong> <\/a> informed rhetorical training in the European tradition to varying degrees, rhetorical scholars in the twentieth century became particularly interested in his theories. These scholars started a movement called the Neo-Aristotelian school of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>. While the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_258\">modes of appeal<\/a><\/strong> began with Aristotle, their description below reflects the influence of these more recent scholars.<\/p>\n<p>These <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> are simple yet profound tools that enable us to analyze the persuasive qualities of messages composed by others and to design more effective messages ourselves.<\/p>\n<p>Before we dive into each mode, watch the video below for a brief introduction to each one.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Ethos, Pathos &amp; Logos\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/aUpiy67_nt4?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Now that you understand <strong>logos<\/strong>, <strong>pathos<\/strong>, and <strong>ethos<\/strong>, let&#8217;s discuss each in detail.<\/p>\n<h2>Logos: Appeal to Logic<\/h2>\n<p>Logic. Reason. Rationality. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_221\">Logos<\/a><\/strong> is brainy, intellectual, cool, calm, collected, and objective.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\">When authors or speakers rely on <strong>logos<\/strong>, they use logic, careful structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience. Authors or speakers can appeal to an audience\u2019s intellect by using information that can be fact-checked (using multiple sources) and thorough explanations to support key points. Additionally, providing a solid and non-biased explanation of one&#8217;s argument is an excellent way for an author to invoke <strong>logos<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\">For example, an instructor wants to convince their students that they should complete their homework. The instructor might explain that they understand everyone is busy and they have other classes (non-biased), but the homework will help the students get a better grade on their test (explanation). The instructor could add to this explanation by providing statistics showing the number of students who failed and didn\u2019t complete their homework versus the number of students who passed and did complete their homework (factual evidence).<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\">Logical appeals rest on rational modes of thinking<strong>,<\/strong> such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Comparison &#8211;\u00a0<\/strong>comparing one thing (about your topic) and another similar thing to help support your claim. The comparison must be fair and valid\u2014the things being compared must share significant traits of similarity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cause\/effect thinking &#8211;\u00a0<\/strong>you argue that X has caused Y or X is likely to cause Y to help support your claim. Be careful with the latter\u2014it can be difficult to predict that something &#8220;will&#8221; happen in the future.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Deductive reasoning &#8211;\u00a0<\/strong>starting with a broad, general claim\/example and using it to support a more specific point or claim.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Inductive reasoning &#8211;\u00a0<\/strong>using several specific examples or cases to make a broad generalization.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Exemplification &#8211;\u00a0<\/strong>use of many examples or various evidence to support a single point.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Elaboration<\/strong> &#8211; moving beyond just including a fact but explaining the significance or relevance of that fact.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Coherent thought<\/strong> &#8211; maintaining a well-organized line of reasoning, not repeating ideas or jumping around.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>Pathos: Appeal to Emotions<\/h2>\n<p>When <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_214\"><strong>rhetor<\/strong>s<\/a>\u00a0rely on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_220\"><strong>pathos<\/strong><\/a>, it means that they are trying to tap into the audience&#8217;s emotions, values, and beliefs to encourage them to consider and respond to a claim. Authors or speakers using <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals want the audience to feel something: anger, pride, joy, rage, or happiness.\u00a0 For example, many of us have seen the ASPCA commercials that use photographs of injured puppies or sad-looking kittens and slow, depressing music to persuade their audience to donate money emotionally.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>Pathos<\/strong>-based rhetorical strategies are any strategies that get the audience to &#8220;open up&#8221; to the topic,\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">the argument, or the\u00a0<strong>rhetor<\/strong>. While\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong>\u00a0appeals usually provide a basis for persuasion,\u00a0<strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals can provide an emotional context for arguments<\/span>\u00a0and thereby help an audience receive and respond to a message.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>Pathos<\/strong> appeals may also attempt to appeal to the values or beliefs that the audience holds. Such values or beliefs may include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">justice<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">equality<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">Dignity for all humankind<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">self-preservation<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">patriotism<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">tradition<\/li>\n<li class=\"no-indent\">specific social, religious, or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism, etc.).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"no-indent\">Pathos strategies are not only limited to using emotional appeals in your argument; they may also include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>providing expressive<strong> descriptions<\/strong> of people, places, or events that help the reader to feel or experience those events<\/li>\n<li>creating <strong>vivid imagery<\/strong> of people, places, or events that helps the audience feel like they are seeing\u00a0 those events<\/li>\n<li>Sharing<strong>\u00a0personal stories<\/strong> that make the audience feel a connection to, or empathy for, the person being described<\/li>\n<li>Using<strong> emotion-laden<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>vocabulary <\/strong>puts the audience into that specific emotional mindset (what is the author or speaker trying to make the audience feel, and how are they doing that?)<\/li>\n<li>Using any information that will <strong>evoke an emotional response<\/strong> <strong>from the audience<\/strong>. This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for the person\/group\/event being discussed, or perhaps a connection to or rejection of the person\/group\/event being discussed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>When reading a text or listening to a speech, locate when the speaker is trying to convince the reader using emotions. Remember that <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals must be developed carefully, with a clear understanding of an audience&#8217;s values and beliefs. An audience may regard an excessive or overly aggressive emotional appeal as manipulative or overcompensating for weak\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercise #1: Identify Pathos Appeals<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_220\">Pathos<\/a> is all about tapping into the emotions of your audience to get them to agree with one of your claims. Advertisements commonly use such appeals since advertisers want you to react somehow. They may want you to buy a specific product they are selling, donate to a particular charity, or even take an action that will benefit only yourself. The most effective advertisements, then, are the ones that make an <strong>appropriate<\/strong> <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeal to their audience.<\/p>\n<p>Watch both videos below. Each one is an advertisement. As you watch, consider the following questions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>What action does the ad want you to take?<\/li>\n<li>How is the ad appealing to your emotions?<\/li>\n<li>Do you consider the pathos appeals to be appropriate? Why or why not?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>For the second question, see if you can identify at least three <strong>pathos<\/strong> appeals.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Video #1: Sarah\u00a0McLachlan SPCA Commercial<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Sarah McLachlan SPCA Commercial\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/IO9d2PpP7tQ?start=4&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Link to Original Video: <a href=\"http:\/\/tinyurl.com\/sarahmclach\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">tinyurl.com\/sarahmclach<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Video #2: British Heart Foundation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"When You Least Expect It\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8D86RqDQiYc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Link to Original Video: <a href=\"http:\/\/tinyurl.com\/britheartfound\">tinyurl.com\/britheartfound<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr \/>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1.424em; font-weight: bold;\">Ethos: Appeal to Values\/Trust<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Aristotle succinctly states that there are three things we trust other than logical proof:\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">goodwill<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">,\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">good<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">judgment<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">\u00a0(practical wisdom), and\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">good character<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"> (virtue) (Kennedy, 1991). All three are elements of\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ethos<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">, the mode of appeal that focuses on the speaker or author.<\/span>\u00a0Ultimately,\u00a0<strong>ethos<\/strong> refers to how the message reveals the character of the speaker or author; thus, good <strong>ethos<\/strong> is persuasive, and bad <strong>ethos<\/strong> naturally alienates an audience and sabotages persuasion.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Authors or speakers must demonstrate\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">goodwill<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"> toward their audience to persuade<\/span>\u00a0them. Rhetors who belittle their audience, disrespect them, or trivialize their concerns will generally find their audience unreceptive to their message.<\/p>\n<p>To display <strong>good judgment<\/strong>, rhetors must demonstrate an understanding of their audience. On the one hand, they must show the audience that they understand the values that motivate them; on the other hand, they must provide the types of evidence for their claims that the audience will find most convincing, and thereby establish their<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_210\">credibility<\/a><\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_210\">Credibility<\/a><\/strong> of speakers or authors is determined by their knowledge and expertise in the subject at hand. For example, if you are learning about Einstein\u2019s Theory of Relativity, would you rather learn from a professor of physics or a cousin who took two science classes in high school thirty years ago? It is fair to say that, in general, the professor of physics would have more <strong>credibility<\/strong> when discussing physics. To establish their <strong>credibility<\/strong>, <strong>rhetors<\/strong> may draw attention to who they are or what kinds of experience they have with the topic being discussed as an ethical appeal (i.e., &#8220;Because I have experience with this topic\u2014and I know my stuff!\u2014you should trust what I am saying about this topic&#8221;). Some authors or speakers do not have to establish their <strong>credibility<\/strong> because the audience already knows who they are and that they are credible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_259\">Good character<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is another aspect of <strong>ethos<\/strong>, and it<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>is different from <strong>credibility<\/strong> because it involves personal history and even personality traits. A person can be credible but lack <strong>character,<\/strong> or vice versa.\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">For example, in politics, sometimes the most experienced candidates- those who might be the most plausible candidates\u2014fail to win elections because voters do not accept their <strong>character<\/strong>.<\/span>\u00a0Politicians take pains to shape their <strong>character<\/strong> as leaders with the voters&#8217; interests at heart. Candidates who successfully prove to the voters (the audience) that they have the type of <strong>character<\/strong> that the voters can trust are more likely to win.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\">Thus, <strong>ethos<\/strong> comes down to trust. How can <strong>rhetors<\/strong> get the audience to trust them so that they will accept their argument? How can authors or speakers make themselves appear as credible speakers who embody the character traits that the audience values?<\/p>\n<p>In building ethical appeals, we see authors or speakers:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the intended audience (so that the audience will trust the speaker)<\/li>\n<li>Using language, phrasing, imagery, or other writing styles common to people who hold those values, thereby &#8220;talking the talk&#8221; of people with those values (again, so that the audience is inclined to trust the speaker)<\/li>\n<li>Referring to their experience and\/or authority with the topic (and therefore demonstrating their credibility)<\/li>\n<li>Referring to their character or making an effort to build their character in the text<\/li>\n<li>Displaying their concern for the audience<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>When reading or listening, you should always think about the <strong>rhetor\u2019s<\/strong> <strong>credibility<\/strong> regarding the subject and their <strong>character<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercise #2: Chapter Quiz<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Test your understanding of the material in this chapter with the quiz below.<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-5\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-5\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"5\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Quiz - Aristotle and Modes of Appeal\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_213\">Rhetoric<\/a> is a set of principles that allow a speaker or writer to persuade an audience to take a specific action.<\/li>\n<li>Learning these principles will help us understand how messages persuade us and, most importantly, how we can use those principles to persuade others in professional contexts.<\/li>\n<li>Aristotle is the most famous teacher of <strong>rhetoric<\/strong>. He believed that anyone could learn the art of persuasion through practice. His three <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_258\">modes of appeal<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong>are considered one of the best ways to persuade others.<\/li>\n<li>The three <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> are <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_221\">logos<\/a><\/strong>, <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_220\">pathos<\/a><\/strong>, and <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_37_219\">ethos<\/a><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Logos\u00a0<\/strong>occurs when authors or speakers use logic, careful structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Pathos\u00a0<\/strong>occurs when authors or speakers tap into an audience&#8217;s emotions to get them to agree with a claim.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ethos\u00a0<\/strong>occurs when authors or speakers appeal to an audience&#8217;s values and try to establish their credibility and character.<\/li>\n<li>To be successful at persuasion, a person must use all three <strong>modes of appeal<\/strong> when constructing their message. Ignoring any of them will make the message less effective at persuading an audience.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">References<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Kennedy,\u00a0G.\u00a0A. (1991).\u00a0<em>Aristotle on rhetoric: A theory of civic discourse<\/em>. Oxford University Press, USA.<\/p>\n<h2>Attribution<\/h2>\n<p>This chapter is adapted from &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/csu-fyw-rhetoric\/chapter\/rhetorical-strategies-building-compelling-arguments\/\">A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing<\/a>&#8221; by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel (on <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/\">Pressbooks@MSL<\/a>). It is licensed under the <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" rel=\"license\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_37_213\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_213\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a practical, purposeful communication that attempts to create change in the world by enabling a rhetor to persuade people to change their beliefs or solve problems.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_258\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_258\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Aristotle's means for persuading an audience. The modes are ethos, pathos, and logos<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_219\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_219\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a rhetorical appeal that addresses the values of an audience as well as establishes authorial credibility\/character<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_220\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_220\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a rhetorical appeal that tries to tap into the audience's emotions to get them to agree with a claim<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_221\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_221\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a rhetorical appeal that requires the use of logic, careful structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_214\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_214\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a person who uses rhetoric to accomplish a task through communication<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_210\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_210\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a quality that allows others to trust and believe you<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_37_259\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_37_259\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>the personal history and personality traits of the speaker or writer<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":101,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-37","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":36,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/37","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/101"}],"version-history":[{"count":16,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/37\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2807,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/37\/revisions\/2807"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/36"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/37\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=37"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=37"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=37"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=37"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}