{"id":1172,"date":"2025-05-07T15:23:34","date_gmt":"2025-05-07T15:23:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1172"},"modified":"2025-07-16T21:56:15","modified_gmt":"2025-07-16T21:56:15","slug":"downward-communication","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/chapter\/downward-communication\/","title":{"raw":"Downward Communication","rendered":"Downward Communication"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain downward communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understand the typology of downward communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe two problems associated with downward communication.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"142\" data-end=\"450\">In any organization, communication from leadership to employees, called <em data-start=\"219\" data-end=\"243\">downward communication, <\/em>sets the tone for everything from performance expectations to morale. It\u2019s how vision, goals, instructions, and policies go from the top of the hierarchy to the people doing the day-to-day work. In this section, you\u2019ll learn what downward communication looks like, why it matters, and the different forms it can take. We\u2019ll also explore common pitfalls, such as information overload or distortion, as messages move through the layers of an organization. Understanding the strengths and challenges of downward communication can help you improve clarity, consistency, and credibility, whether you're giving direction or receiving it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 data-start=\"142\" data-end=\"450\">Formal Communication<\/h2>\r\nThe word \u201cformal\u201d describes adherence to conventional behavioral requirements. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1999\"]Formal communication[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> consists of the rules and norms established by an organization for communicative behavior. A\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1998\"]communication rule[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a standard or directive governing how communication occurs within an organization. Communication rules are explicitly stated and may be found in your organization\u2019s policies and procedures manual. For example, your organization may have established stringent guidelines for what to do in the event of an emergency.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Communication Rule Example<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nOne of the authors of this chapter worked in a hospital that had very explicit communication rules if a needle accidentally stuck someone.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>First, the individual was required to immediately go to the emergency room for testing and initiate preventive pharmaceutical measures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Second, the head of the hospital\u2019s risk management office was to be contacted.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe risk management head would then investigate the matter and submit a formal report of all accidents to the hospital's CEO on a monthly basis. These steps were not optional and were clearly outlined in the employee handbook.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nOn the other hand, communication norms are standards or patterns of communication regarded as typical. Where communication rules are explicitly discussed within an organization, communication norms are only learned through active observation of communicative behavior within the organization. One of the most common ways to learn a communicative norm in an organization is to violate it inadvertently. For example, in the same hospital discussed above, the head of risk management had to formally communicate to the CEO every month any accidents that had occurred. However, the head of risk management would also send the CEO an e-mail as soon as she had an incident report, to keep him updated more frequently. When the head of risk management went on a two-month leave of absence, one of her subordinates took over the position. The subordinate followed the guidelines outlined in the policies and procedures manual. However, the CEO became very angry when he received his formal briefing on accidents at the end of the month, as he hadn\u2019t been kept up to date throughout the month. In this case, the subordinate had followed the formal communication rules of the organization but had violated what had become a formal communication norm.\r\n\r\nUnderstanding how formal communication functions within an organization is essential; therefore, much of the early research on organizational communication has examined formal communication. To help us further appreciate formal communication within the organization, we will discuss the three primary directions in which communication occurs: downward, upward, and horizontal\/lateral.\r\n<h2>Downward Communication<\/h2>\r\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2000\"]Downward communication[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> consists of messages that start at the top of the hierarchy and are transmitted to the lowest rungs. Downward communication can be considered a form of top-down approach in organizational communication. Max Weber (1930) was the earliest thinker in the field of downward communication. Weber believed there were two ways to get employees to follow one\u2019s directives: power and authority. Weber defined <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2001\"]power[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0as the ability to force people to obey regardless of their resistance, whereas\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1974\"]authority[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> occurs when orders are voluntarily obeyed by those receiving them. Weber argued that individuals in authority-based organizations were more likely to perceive directives as legitimate. While this process may sound simplistic, individuals in management positions often must determine how to communicate with employees effectively. Randy Hirokawa (1979) noted that there are two general types of downward communication in modern organizations:\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">(1) information concerning the current\/future status of specific aspects of the organization, new organizational policies, recent administrative decisions, and recent changes in the standard-operating-procedures; and (2) information of a task-related nature which generally provide subordinates with the technical know-how to accomplish their tasks or assignments with greater efficiency and productivity. (p. 84)<\/div>\r\nWhile Hirokawa\u2019s two-pronged approach to downward communication is pretty consistent with the type of communication that occurs in modern organizations, this type of communication was not always present.\r\n<h2>Types of Downward Communication<\/h2>\r\nWhile numerous typologies examine the various types of messages transmitted down a hierarchy from management, the most commonly cited was created by Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn (1966). Katz and Kahn\u2019s typology breaks downward communication into five distinct types: job instructions, rationales, procedures and practices, feedback, and indoctrination.\r\n<h3>Job Instructions<\/h3>\r\nThe first\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">message that management commonly communicates to employees is\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2002\"]job instructions[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> or how management wants an employee to perform their job. This type of downward communication often <\/span>occurs through training. Depending on the job's difficulty, communicating with an employee about how to perform their job could take days, months, or years. Some organizations will even send employees outside the organization for more specialized training.\r\n<h3>Job Rationales<\/h3>\r\nKatz and Kahn (1966) identified the second type of message\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">commonly communicated downward in an organization as <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2003\"]job rationales[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0<\/strong>or introductory statements<\/span>\u00a0of the purpose of a specific job and how that job relates to the organization's overarching goal<\/span>. Every job should contribute to the organization's objectives, so understanding how one\u2019s position fits into the larger organizational scheme is crucial. Furthermore, the job rationale will illustrate how a single job relates to other jobs within the organizational hierarchy.\r\n<h3>Procedures and Practices<\/h3>\r\nThe third type of messages Katz and Kahn (1966) identified as commonly communicated downward in an organization are procedures and practices. Procedures and practices are typically outlined in an employee manual or handbook when you start working within an organization. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2004\"]Procedures[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> are sequences of steps to be followed in a given situation. For example, in an organization, procedures may be in place for reporting sexual harassment or for hiring new staff members. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2005\"]Practices[\/pb_glossary] <\/strong>are behaviors people should do habitually. For example, you may punch in and out using a time clock or be allowed to wear open-toed shoes. There are procedures and practices related to <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2017\"]policies[\/pb_glossary] <\/strong>(courses of action taken in the organization), <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2018\"]rules[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (standards or directives governing behavior), and <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2019\"]benefits[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (payment and entitlements one receives with the job).\r\n<h3>Feedback<\/h3>\r\nThe fourth type of message Katz and Kahn (1966) identified as commonly communicated downward in an organization is <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"254\"]feedback[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. Providing input to subordinates is a crucial aspect of any supervisory role (Redding, 1972). Employees can only grow and become more proficient in their jobs if they receive feedback from those above them. This feedback should contain both positive and negative comments. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2006\"]Positive feedback[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> occurs when a supervisor explains to a subordinate what they are doing well, whereas <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2007\"]negative feedback[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> occurs when a supervisor explains areas that need improvement to a subordinate. Furthermore, feedback should not only happen in formal review sessions, often referred to as \u201c[pb_glossary id=\"2008\"]<strong>summative feedback<\/strong>[\/pb_glossary].\u201d Instead, supervisors should utilize formative or periodic feedback to help employees grow and develop within the organization.\r\n<h3>Employee Indoctrination<\/h3>\r\nThe last type of downward communication discussed by Katz and Kahn (1966) is employee indoctrination.\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2009\"]Indoctrination[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is instilling an employee with a partisan or ideological point of view. Specifically, organizations use indoctrination messages to help new members adopt ideological stances that align with the organization\u2019s culture and goals. The ultimate goal of organizational indoctrination is organizational identification, or \u201cthe extent to which that person\u2019s self-concept includes the same characteristics he or she perceives to be distinctive, central, and enduring to the organization\u201d (Beyer, Hannah, &amp; Milton, 2000, p. 333).\r\n\r\nKatz and Kahn\u2019s (1966) typology of downward communication is very useful when examining organizational communication. Often, managers may be competent at one or two types of downward communication but not as qualified in the other three. When this is the case, managers need training to become effective downward communicators. Furthermore, managers must also think of the most appropriate communication channels to send downward messages. An article in Management Report in 2004 titled \u201cDownward Communication\u201d listed many possibilities for communicating information downward: staff meetings, one-on-one meetings, internal newsletters, employee information sheets, bulletin boards, employee handbooks, and e-mail. While these are options for downward communication, not all are appropriate for every situation.\r\n\r\nFor example, you probably don\u2019t want to chastise an employee\u2019s tardiness in a company newsletter, on a bulletin board, or during a staff meeting. However, this form of downward communication could be appropriately sent during a one-on-one meeting, through employee information sheets, or via email. Ultimately, managers must be competent in communicating down the hierarchy to their subordinates. Now that we\u2019ve looked at the types of messages sent down the hierarchy and the different mediums a manager could use to send messages down the hierarchy, let\u2019s examine some of the problems with downward communication.\r\n<h2>Problems with Downward Communication<\/h2>\r\nDownward communication is a crucial component of any organization. However, Randy Hirokawa (1979) noted two primary problems of downward communication: accuracy and adequacy. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2010\"]Accuracy of information[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> refers to how truthful a message is. There are two primary ways that the accuracy of a message can be distorted. First, some messages are based on inaccurate information. For example, a manager who hears a false rumor and then passes it on to their subordinates has passed on erroneous information. When subordinates learn the truth of the rumor, the manager\u2019s credibility will be negatively impacted because their subordinates will perceive the manager as an untrustworthy source of information.\r\n\r\nThe second way messages can contain inaccurate information is due to multiple people in the communication chain, or <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2011\"]serial transmission[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, as W. Charles Redding (1966) calls it. As we know from playing the telephone game in school, when A communicates to B, B communicates to C, and C communicates to D, the chances of the message becoming distorted with each successive person increase. Even in the case of serial transmission of information (A\u2022B\u2022C\u2022D), managers who are caught communicating inaccurate information can expect to have their credibility questioned by employees. Another ramification of passing on erroneous information is that some subordinates question how connected their supervisor is to the organizational hierarchy. If my supervisor passes on inaccurate information, they may not be aware of what\u2019s happening.\r\n\r\nA second problem with downward communication is the adequacy of the information.<strong> [pb_glossary id=\"2012\"]Adequacy of information[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> refers to whether or not the information being transmitted is sufficient to satisfy a requirement or need for information in the workplace. When discussing adequacy, there are two possible extremes that managers could swing to: communication underload and communication overload. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2013\"]Communication underload[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> occurs when subordinates are not provided enough information to complete their jobs. Communication underload can manifest in several ways, including inadequate on-the-job training, limited feedback from supervisors, or insufficient information on organizational policies and procedures. Often, communication underload is entirely accidental and occurs as an inadvertent omission. In this case, supervisors may have too many things going on, and information is accidentally not passed on to their subordinates promptly. At other times, communication overload can occur because a supervisor must hoard information to secure their power base. Individuals often see information as power and transmitting that information to another person as a loss of control (Huseman, Lahiff, &amp; Wells, 1974). When information hoarding occurs, subordinates may be given just enough information to avoid making their supervisor look bad, but not enough to excel at their jobs. For obvious reasons, information hoarding can be a significant problem in organizations.\r\n\r\nThe second problem associated with the adequacy of information involves <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2014\"]communication overload[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, or when subordinates are provided too much information to complete their jobs. In an ideal work environment, supervisors will serve as gatekeepers of information, ensuring that adequate information is passed on to subordinates to help them excel. Unfortunately, some supervisors do not know how to function as gatekeepers, so they pass along any information they receive to their subordinates without filtering out unnecessary or irrelevant information. Eventually, subordinates can become so overwhelmed with the messages they receive that they spend much of their workday simply sifting through information, thereby decreasing their productivity (Anderson &amp; Level, 1980). When faced with communication overload, other individuals often start ignoring all the information because it\u2019s simpler to disregard it than to sift through it all. Communication overload is generally a product of channel capacity or an individual\u2019s limits to receiving information (Redding, 1972). Some information is easy for an individual to process, but other information involves considerably more effort on the receiver's part. The more technical and complex the information, the smaller an individual\u2019s channel capacity for handling the information will be.\r\n\r\nIn addition to Randy Hirokawa\u2019s (1979) two primary problems associated with downward communication, we believe there is a third problem: utility.\r\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"182\" data-end=\"413\"><strong data-start=\"182\" data-end=\"193\">[pb_glossary id=\"2015\"]Utility[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> refers to how useful or relevant the information is to the person receiving it. In many workplaces, employees are expected to handle a significant amount of communication, but not all of it is directly relevant to their specific job. For example, imagine a welding student working part-time in a fabrication shop receiving a long email about a change in the company\u2019s accounting software. That update might be critical for the finance team, but it's unrelated for someone on the shop floor and adds to the clutter in their inbox. When workers receive too many irrelevant messages, they may start tuning out important ones, such as safety reminders or shift changes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"182\" data-end=\"413\">Clear, targeted communication<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"> is essential in technical and hands-on professions<\/span>. Sending messages that don\u2019t apply to the person\u2019s job wastes time, distracts from critical tasks, and can even lead to mistakes if important information is buried. The most effective communication is helpful, timely, and directly connected to the work.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Effective Methods for Downward Communication<\/h2>\r\nNow that we\u2019ve examined some of the problems organizations face with downward communication, let\u2019s discuss some best practices for downward communication. First, individuals engaged in downward communication must ensure that the information they pass on to those below them is <em>accurate and reliable<\/em>. If this means spending a little extra time verifying the information, then do so. A supervisor may have to pay a couple of extra minutes verifying information, but this is a better trade-off than rebuilding one\u2019s credibility.\r\n\r\nSecond, ensure that the information you pass along to your subordinates is adequate and can be utilized. To ensure that you avoid communication underload and overload, you should do two things: <em>filter and ask<\/em>. The first thing to ensure your subordinates are receiving adequate information is to filter out information that isn\u2019t necessary for them. Filtering out information for one\u2019s subordinates is not an easy task. One easy way to help filter information is to ask yourself, \u201cWill this information help my subordinates personally or professionally?\u201d Some information could be helpful to your subordinates personally, such as workshops on stress avoidance, time management, or conflict resolution. At the same time, other information can also benefit your subordinates professionally, such as details about job duties, career advancement opportunities, and organizational policies and procedures. In addition to attempting to filter information for your subordinates, you can always ask them if they feel they are getting enough information. Often, subordinates will be the first to tell you when they think you are under- or over-informed.\r\n\r\nThe third best practice in downward communication involves the <em>source of the message<\/em>. The source of the message has a significant impact on how people perceive its importance. For example, messages from the organization's CEO will receive more weight than those from a mid-level manager. For this reason, essential messages should come from the top of the hierarchy and be transmitted as directly as possible to the employees to avoid serial transmission.\r\n\r\nThe fourth best practice in downward communication involves the <em>communication channels<\/em> utilized for the downward transmission of a message. By communication channels, we refer to the traditional concept of communication channels commonly understood within organizations. One needs to think about the most expedient delivery method when encoding a message for transmission through the organizational hierarchy. As previously discussed, the more individuals a message is transmitted through, the more likely it will become distorted.\r\n\r\nThe fifth best practice in downward communication involves mindfully picking the <em>communicative medium<\/em> utilized for downward communication. As discussed earlier in this chapter, Katz and Kahn\u2019s (1966) typology of downward communication consists of five different types:\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>job instructions<\/li>\r\n \t<li>job rationales<\/li>\r\n \t<li>procedures and practices<\/li>\r\n \t<li>feedback<\/li>\r\n \t<li>indoctrination<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhen encoding various messages related to these five types of downward communication, managers need to recognize that the same communicative medium may not be the most effective tool for every message they convey. Various kinds of communicative press can be utilized, including staff meetings, one-on-one meetings, internal newsletters, employee information sheets, bulletin boards, employee handbooks, email, and employee social networking sites. Communication through multiple media may also be necessary if information is critical.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chad's Employee E-Mail Account<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nOne of our coauthors had a former student named Chad who worked for a large discount chain as a front-line customer service representative in the technology department. Chad learned one day that he had violated a new rule set forth by the organization, which he had not known existed. When he asked his manager about the new policy, Chad was told that he should have received an e-mail about the new rule in his employee e-mail account. To make this situation even more problematic, Chad didn\u2019t even know he had an employee e-mail account. Chad discovered that the corporation had an intranet and all employees were supposed to check their e-mail before clocking in for work. Chad asked some of his coworkers if they knew about employee email accounts and found that no one was aware of the email accounts. This example illustrates what can happen when organizations only utilize one communicative medium for important downward messages.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe story about Chad also illustrates our final recommendation for best practices in downward communication, <em>checking for understanding<\/em>. The message received, not the one sent, is the one a receiver will ultimately act upon in an organization (Redding, 1972). As in the case of Chad, the lack of message reception is also a problem. It\u2019s one thing to tell someone something, and completely different to have communicated with someone. Telling is a sender-centered communicative strategy because the sender encodes and transmits the message (Richmond, McCroskey, &amp; McCroskey, 2005). However, the sender does not ensure the receiver receives or interprets the message correctly.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, the meaning of a message is determined by the receiver, not by the sender (Redding, 1972).\u00a0 In the case of telling, the receiver is completely taken out of the communication process, so the chance of misunderstandings and missed communication increases dramatically. For this reason, we recommend that downward communication be followed up with interaction with the individuals receiving the message to ensure that the message is being received and interpreted in a manner consistent with the sender\u2019s original intent. Supervisors must encourage subordinates to communicate upward to ascertain message reception and interpretation.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Max Weber (1930) believed organizations had two ways to get employees to follow their directives: power and authority.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Power is the ability to compel people to obey, regardless of their resistance, whereas authority occurs when orders are voluntarily followed by those receiving them. Weber argued that individuals in authority-based organizations were more likely to perceive directives as legitimate.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Katz and Kahn (1966) developed a typology of downward communication comprising five distinct types: job instructions, job rationales, procedures and practices, feedback, and indoctrination.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hirokawa (1979) noted that there are two primary problems associated with downward communication: accuracy (how truthful a message is that has been received) and adequacy (whether or not the information being communicated is sufficient to satisfy a requirement or need for information in the workplace).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">References<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nAnderson, J., &amp; Level, D. A. (1980). The impact of certain types of downward communication on job performance.\u00a0<em>The Journal of Business Communication, 17<\/em>, 51\u201359.\r\n\r\nBeyer, J. M., Hannah, D. R., &amp; Milton, L. P. (2000). Ties that bind: Culture and attachments in organizations. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, &amp; M. F. Peterson (Eds.),\u00a0<em>Handbook of organizational culture &amp; climate<\/em> (pp. 323\u2013338). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 333.\r\n\r\nHirokawa, R. Y. (1979). Communication and the managerial function: Some suggestions for improving organizational communication.\u00a0<em>Communication, 8<\/em>, 83\u201395.\r\n\r\nHuseman, R., Lahiff, J., &amp; Wells, R. (1974). Communication thermoclines: Toward a process of identification.\u00a0<em>Personnel Journal, 53<\/em>, 124\u2013135.\r\n\r\nKatz, D., &amp; Kahn, R. L. (1966).\u00a0<em>The social psychology of organizations<\/em>. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons.\r\n\r\nRedding, W. C. (1966). The empirical study of human communication in business and industry. In P. E. Reid (Ed.),\u00a0<em>The frontiers in experimental speech-communication research\u00a0<\/em>(pp. 47\u201381). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press\r\n\r\nRedding, W. C. (1972).\u00a0<em>Communication with the organization: An interpretive review of theory and research.<\/em>\u00a0New York: Industrial Communication Council, Inc.\r\n\r\nRichmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., &amp; McCroskey, L. L. (2005).\u00a0<em>Organizational communication for survival: Making work, work<\/em>\u00a0(3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn &amp; Bacon.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Attribution<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/open.library.okstate.edu\/orgcomm\" rel=\"cc:attributionURL\">Organizational Communication<\/a>\u00a0Copyright \u00a9 by\u00a0Dr. Sarah Hollingsworth\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" rel=\"license\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>, except where otherwise noted.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain downward communication.<\/li>\n<li>Understand the typology of downward communication.<\/li>\n<li>Describe two problems associated with downward communication.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"142\" data-end=\"450\">In any organization, communication from leadership to employees, called <em data-start=\"219\" data-end=\"243\">downward communication, <\/em>sets the tone for everything from performance expectations to morale. It\u2019s how vision, goals, instructions, and policies go from the top of the hierarchy to the people doing the day-to-day work. In this section, you\u2019ll learn what downward communication looks like, why it matters, and the different forms it can take. We\u2019ll also explore common pitfalls, such as information overload or distortion, as messages move through the layers of an organization. Understanding the strengths and challenges of downward communication can help you improve clarity, consistency, and credibility, whether you&#8217;re giving direction or receiving it.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"142\" data-end=\"450\">Formal Communication<\/h2>\n<p>The word \u201cformal\u201d describes adherence to conventional behavioral requirements. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_1999\">Formal communication<\/a><\/strong> consists of the rules and norms established by an organization for communicative behavior. A\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_1998\">communication rule<\/a><\/strong> is a standard or directive governing how communication occurs within an organization. Communication rules are explicitly stated and may be found in your organization\u2019s policies and procedures manual. For example, your organization may have established stringent guidelines for what to do in the event of an emergency.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Communication Rule Example<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>One of the authors of this chapter worked in a hospital that had very explicit communication rules if a needle accidentally stuck someone.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>First, the individual was required to immediately go to the emergency room for testing and initiate preventive pharmaceutical measures.<\/li>\n<li>Second, the head of the hospital\u2019s risk management office was to be contacted.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The risk management head would then investigate the matter and submit a formal report of all accidents to the hospital&#8217;s CEO on a monthly basis. These steps were not optional and were clearly outlined in the employee handbook.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>On the other hand, communication norms are standards or patterns of communication regarded as typical. Where communication rules are explicitly discussed within an organization, communication norms are only learned through active observation of communicative behavior within the organization. One of the most common ways to learn a communicative norm in an organization is to violate it inadvertently. For example, in the same hospital discussed above, the head of risk management had to formally communicate to the CEO every month any accidents that had occurred. However, the head of risk management would also send the CEO an e-mail as soon as she had an incident report, to keep him updated more frequently. When the head of risk management went on a two-month leave of absence, one of her subordinates took over the position. The subordinate followed the guidelines outlined in the policies and procedures manual. However, the CEO became very angry when he received his formal briefing on accidents at the end of the month, as he hadn\u2019t been kept up to date throughout the month. In this case, the subordinate had followed the formal communication rules of the organization but had violated what had become a formal communication norm.<\/p>\n<p>Understanding how formal communication functions within an organization is essential; therefore, much of the early research on organizational communication has examined formal communication. To help us further appreciate formal communication within the organization, we will discuss the three primary directions in which communication occurs: downward, upward, and horizontal\/lateral.<\/p>\n<h2>Downward Communication<\/h2>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2000\">Downward communication<\/a><\/strong> consists of messages that start at the top of the hierarchy and are transmitted to the lowest rungs. Downward communication can be considered a form of top-down approach in organizational communication. Max Weber (1930) was the earliest thinker in the field of downward communication. Weber believed there were two ways to get employees to follow one\u2019s directives: power and authority. Weber defined <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2001\">power<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0as the ability to force people to obey regardless of their resistance, whereas\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_1974\">authority<\/a><\/strong> occurs when orders are voluntarily obeyed by those receiving them. Weber argued that individuals in authority-based organizations were more likely to perceive directives as legitimate. While this process may sound simplistic, individuals in management positions often must determine how to communicate with employees effectively. Randy Hirokawa (1979) noted that there are two general types of downward communication in modern organizations:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">(1) information concerning the current\/future status of specific aspects of the organization, new organizational policies, recent administrative decisions, and recent changes in the standard-operating-procedures; and (2) information of a task-related nature which generally provide subordinates with the technical know-how to accomplish their tasks or assignments with greater efficiency and productivity. (p. 84)<\/div>\n<p>While Hirokawa\u2019s two-pronged approach to downward communication is pretty consistent with the type of communication that occurs in modern organizations, this type of communication was not always present.<\/p>\n<h2>Types of Downward Communication<\/h2>\n<p>While numerous typologies examine the various types of messages transmitted down a hierarchy from management, the most commonly cited was created by Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn (1966). Katz and Kahn\u2019s typology breaks downward communication into five distinct types: job instructions, rationales, procedures and practices, feedback, and indoctrination.<\/p>\n<h3>Job Instructions<\/h3>\n<p>The first\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">message that management commonly communicates to employees is\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2002\">job instructions<\/a><\/strong> or how management wants an employee to perform their job. This type of downward communication often <\/span>occurs through training. Depending on the job&#8217;s difficulty, communicating with an employee about how to perform their job could take days, months, or years. Some organizations will even send employees outside the organization for more specialized training.<\/p>\n<h3>Job Rationales<\/h3>\n<p>Katz and Kahn (1966) identified the second type of message\u00a0<span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\"><span style=\"margin: 0px; padding: 0px;\">commonly communicated downward in an organization as <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2003\">job rationales<\/a>,\u00a0<\/strong>or introductory statements<\/span>\u00a0of the purpose of a specific job and how that job relates to the organization&#8217;s overarching goal<\/span>. Every job should contribute to the organization&#8217;s objectives, so understanding how one\u2019s position fits into the larger organizational scheme is crucial. Furthermore, the job rationale will illustrate how a single job relates to other jobs within the organizational hierarchy.<\/p>\n<h3>Procedures and Practices<\/h3>\n<p>The third type of messages Katz and Kahn (1966) identified as commonly communicated downward in an organization are procedures and practices. Procedures and practices are typically outlined in an employee manual or handbook when you start working within an organization. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2004\">Procedures<\/a><\/strong> are sequences of steps to be followed in a given situation. For example, in an organization, procedures may be in place for reporting sexual harassment or for hiring new staff members. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2005\">Practices<\/a> <\/strong>are behaviors people should do habitually. For example, you may punch in and out using a time clock or be allowed to wear open-toed shoes. There are procedures and practices related to <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2017\">policies<\/a> <\/strong>(courses of action taken in the organization), <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2018\">rules<\/a><\/strong> (standards or directives governing behavior), and <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2019\">benefits<\/a><\/strong> (payment and entitlements one receives with the job).<\/p>\n<h3>Feedback<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth type of message Katz and Kahn (1966) identified as commonly communicated downward in an organization is <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_254\">feedback<\/a><\/strong>. Providing input to subordinates is a crucial aspect of any supervisory role (Redding, 1972). Employees can only grow and become more proficient in their jobs if they receive feedback from those above them. This feedback should contain both positive and negative comments. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2006\">Positive feedback<\/a><\/strong> occurs when a supervisor explains to a subordinate what they are doing well, whereas <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2007\">negative feedback<\/a><\/strong> occurs when a supervisor explains areas that need improvement to a subordinate. Furthermore, feedback should not only happen in formal review sessions, often referred to as \u201c<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2008\"><strong>summative feedback<\/strong><\/a>.\u201d Instead, supervisors should utilize formative or periodic feedback to help employees grow and develop within the organization.<\/p>\n<h3>Employee Indoctrination<\/h3>\n<p>The last type of downward communication discussed by Katz and Kahn (1966) is employee indoctrination.\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2009\">Indoctrination<\/a><\/strong> is instilling an employee with a partisan or ideological point of view. Specifically, organizations use indoctrination messages to help new members adopt ideological stances that align with the organization\u2019s culture and goals. The ultimate goal of organizational indoctrination is organizational identification, or \u201cthe extent to which that person\u2019s self-concept includes the same characteristics he or she perceives to be distinctive, central, and enduring to the organization\u201d (Beyer, Hannah, &amp; Milton, 2000, p. 333).<\/p>\n<p>Katz and Kahn\u2019s (1966) typology of downward communication is very useful when examining organizational communication. Often, managers may be competent at one or two types of downward communication but not as qualified in the other three. When this is the case, managers need training to become effective downward communicators. Furthermore, managers must also think of the most appropriate communication channels to send downward messages. An article in Management Report in 2004 titled \u201cDownward Communication\u201d listed many possibilities for communicating information downward: staff meetings, one-on-one meetings, internal newsletters, employee information sheets, bulletin boards, employee handbooks, and e-mail. While these are options for downward communication, not all are appropriate for every situation.<\/p>\n<p>For example, you probably don\u2019t want to chastise an employee\u2019s tardiness in a company newsletter, on a bulletin board, or during a staff meeting. However, this form of downward communication could be appropriately sent during a one-on-one meeting, through employee information sheets, or via email. Ultimately, managers must be competent in communicating down the hierarchy to their subordinates. Now that we\u2019ve looked at the types of messages sent down the hierarchy and the different mediums a manager could use to send messages down the hierarchy, let\u2019s examine some of the problems with downward communication.<\/p>\n<h2>Problems with Downward Communication<\/h2>\n<p>Downward communication is a crucial component of any organization. However, Randy Hirokawa (1979) noted two primary problems of downward communication: accuracy and adequacy. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2010\">Accuracy of information<\/a><\/strong> refers to how truthful a message is. There are two primary ways that the accuracy of a message can be distorted. First, some messages are based on inaccurate information. For example, a manager who hears a false rumor and then passes it on to their subordinates has passed on erroneous information. When subordinates learn the truth of the rumor, the manager\u2019s credibility will be negatively impacted because their subordinates will perceive the manager as an untrustworthy source of information.<\/p>\n<p>The second way messages can contain inaccurate information is due to multiple people in the communication chain, or <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2011\">serial transmission<\/a><\/strong>, as W. Charles Redding (1966) calls it. As we know from playing the telephone game in school, when A communicates to B, B communicates to C, and C communicates to D, the chances of the message becoming distorted with each successive person increase. Even in the case of serial transmission of information (A\u2022B\u2022C\u2022D), managers who are caught communicating inaccurate information can expect to have their credibility questioned by employees. Another ramification of passing on erroneous information is that some subordinates question how connected their supervisor is to the organizational hierarchy. If my supervisor passes on inaccurate information, they may not be aware of what\u2019s happening.<\/p>\n<p>A second problem with downward communication is the adequacy of the information.<strong> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2012\">Adequacy of information<\/a><\/strong> refers to whether or not the information being transmitted is sufficient to satisfy a requirement or need for information in the workplace. When discussing adequacy, there are two possible extremes that managers could swing to: communication underload and communication overload. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2013\">Communication underload<\/a><\/strong> occurs when subordinates are not provided enough information to complete their jobs. Communication underload can manifest in several ways, including inadequate on-the-job training, limited feedback from supervisors, or insufficient information on organizational policies and procedures. Often, communication underload is entirely accidental and occurs as an inadvertent omission. In this case, supervisors may have too many things going on, and information is accidentally not passed on to their subordinates promptly. At other times, communication overload can occur because a supervisor must hoard information to secure their power base. Individuals often see information as power and transmitting that information to another person as a loss of control (Huseman, Lahiff, &amp; Wells, 1974). When information hoarding occurs, subordinates may be given just enough information to avoid making their supervisor look bad, but not enough to excel at their jobs. For obvious reasons, information hoarding can be a significant problem in organizations.<\/p>\n<p>The second problem associated with the adequacy of information involves <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2014\">communication overload<\/a><\/strong>, or when subordinates are provided too much information to complete their jobs. In an ideal work environment, supervisors will serve as gatekeepers of information, ensuring that adequate information is passed on to subordinates to help them excel. Unfortunately, some supervisors do not know how to function as gatekeepers, so they pass along any information they receive to their subordinates without filtering out unnecessary or irrelevant information. Eventually, subordinates can become so overwhelmed with the messages they receive that they spend much of their workday simply sifting through information, thereby decreasing their productivity (Anderson &amp; Level, 1980). When faced with communication overload, other individuals often start ignoring all the information because it\u2019s simpler to disregard it than to sift through it all. Communication overload is generally a product of channel capacity or an individual\u2019s limits to receiving information (Redding, 1972). Some information is easy for an individual to process, but other information involves considerably more effort on the receiver&#8217;s part. The more technical and complex the information, the smaller an individual\u2019s channel capacity for handling the information will be.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to Randy Hirokawa\u2019s (1979) two primary problems associated with downward communication, we believe there is a third problem: utility.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"182\" data-end=\"413\"><strong data-start=\"182\" data-end=\"193\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1172_2015\">Utility<\/a><\/strong> refers to how useful or relevant the information is to the person receiving it. In many workplaces, employees are expected to handle a significant amount of communication, but not all of it is directly relevant to their specific job. For example, imagine a welding student working part-time in a fabrication shop receiving a long email about a change in the company\u2019s accounting software. That update might be critical for the finance team, but it&#8217;s unrelated for someone on the shop floor and adds to the clutter in their inbox. When workers receive too many irrelevant messages, they may start tuning out important ones, such as safety reminders or shift changes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"\" data-start=\"182\" data-end=\"413\">Clear, targeted communication<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"> is essential in technical and hands-on professions<\/span>. Sending messages that don\u2019t apply to the person\u2019s job wastes time, distracts from critical tasks, and can even lead to mistakes if important information is buried. The most effective communication is helpful, timely, and directly connected to the work.<\/p>\n<h2>Effective Methods for Downward Communication<\/h2>\n<p>Now that we\u2019ve examined some of the problems organizations face with downward communication, let\u2019s discuss some best practices for downward communication. First, individuals engaged in downward communication must ensure that the information they pass on to those below them is <em>accurate and reliable<\/em>. If this means spending a little extra time verifying the information, then do so. A supervisor may have to pay a couple of extra minutes verifying information, but this is a better trade-off than rebuilding one\u2019s credibility.<\/p>\n<p>Second, ensure that the information you pass along to your subordinates is adequate and can be utilized. To ensure that you avoid communication underload and overload, you should do two things: <em>filter and ask<\/em>. The first thing to ensure your subordinates are receiving adequate information is to filter out information that isn\u2019t necessary for them. Filtering out information for one\u2019s subordinates is not an easy task. One easy way to help filter information is to ask yourself, \u201cWill this information help my subordinates personally or professionally?\u201d Some information could be helpful to your subordinates personally, such as workshops on stress avoidance, time management, or conflict resolution. At the same time, other information can also benefit your subordinates professionally, such as details about job duties, career advancement opportunities, and organizational policies and procedures. In addition to attempting to filter information for your subordinates, you can always ask them if they feel they are getting enough information. Often, subordinates will be the first to tell you when they think you are under- or over-informed.<\/p>\n<p>The third best practice in downward communication involves the <em>source of the message<\/em>. The source of the message has a significant impact on how people perceive its importance. For example, messages from the organization&#8217;s CEO will receive more weight than those from a mid-level manager. For this reason, essential messages should come from the top of the hierarchy and be transmitted as directly as possible to the employees to avoid serial transmission.<\/p>\n<p>The fourth best practice in downward communication involves the <em>communication channels<\/em> utilized for the downward transmission of a message. By communication channels, we refer to the traditional concept of communication channels commonly understood within organizations. One needs to think about the most expedient delivery method when encoding a message for transmission through the organizational hierarchy. As previously discussed, the more individuals a message is transmitted through, the more likely it will become distorted.<\/p>\n<p>The fifth best practice in downward communication involves mindfully picking the <em>communicative medium<\/em> utilized for downward communication. As discussed earlier in this chapter, Katz and Kahn\u2019s (1966) typology of downward communication consists of five different types:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<ol>\n<li>job instructions<\/li>\n<li>job rationales<\/li>\n<li>procedures and practices<\/li>\n<li>feedback<\/li>\n<li>indoctrination<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p>When encoding various messages related to these five types of downward communication, managers need to recognize that the same communicative medium may not be the most effective tool for every message they convey. Various kinds of communicative press can be utilized, including staff meetings, one-on-one meetings, internal newsletters, employee information sheets, bulletin boards, employee handbooks, email, and employee social networking sites. Communication through multiple media may also be necessary if information is critical.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chad&#8217;s Employee E-Mail Account<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>One of our coauthors had a former student named Chad who worked for a large discount chain as a front-line customer service representative in the technology department. Chad learned one day that he had violated a new rule set forth by the organization, which he had not known existed. When he asked his manager about the new policy, Chad was told that he should have received an e-mail about the new rule in his employee e-mail account. To make this situation even more problematic, Chad didn\u2019t even know he had an employee e-mail account. Chad discovered that the corporation had an intranet and all employees were supposed to check their e-mail before clocking in for work. Chad asked some of his coworkers if they knew about employee email accounts and found that no one was aware of the email accounts. This example illustrates what can happen when organizations only utilize one communicative medium for important downward messages.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The story about Chad also illustrates our final recommendation for best practices in downward communication, <em>checking for understanding<\/em>. The message received, not the one sent, is the one a receiver will ultimately act upon in an organization (Redding, 1972). As in the case of Chad, the lack of message reception is also a problem. It\u2019s one thing to tell someone something, and completely different to have communicated with someone. Telling is a sender-centered communicative strategy because the sender encodes and transmits the message (Richmond, McCroskey, &amp; McCroskey, 2005). However, the sender does not ensure the receiver receives or interprets the message correctly.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, the meaning of a message is determined by the receiver, not by the sender (Redding, 1972).\u00a0 In the case of telling, the receiver is completely taken out of the communication process, so the chance of misunderstandings and missed communication increases dramatically. For this reason, we recommend that downward communication be followed up with interaction with the individuals receiving the message to ensure that the message is being received and interpreted in a manner consistent with the sender\u2019s original intent. Supervisors must encourage subordinates to communicate upward to ascertain message reception and interpretation.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Takeaways<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Max Weber (1930) believed organizations had two ways to get employees to follow their directives: power and authority.<\/li>\n<li>Power is the ability to compel people to obey, regardless of their resistance, whereas authority occurs when orders are voluntarily followed by those receiving them. Weber argued that individuals in authority-based organizations were more likely to perceive directives as legitimate.<\/li>\n<li>Katz and Kahn (1966) developed a typology of downward communication comprising five distinct types: job instructions, job rationales, procedures and practices, feedback, and indoctrination.<\/li>\n<li>Hirokawa (1979) noted that there are two primary problems associated with downward communication: accuracy (how truthful a message is that has been received) and adequacy (whether or not the information being communicated is sufficient to satisfy a requirement or need for information in the workplace).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">References<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Anderson, J., &amp; Level, D. A. (1980). The impact of certain types of downward communication on job performance.\u00a0<em>The Journal of Business Communication, 17<\/em>, 51\u201359.<\/p>\n<p>Beyer, J. M., Hannah, D. R., &amp; Milton, L. P. (2000). Ties that bind: Culture and attachments in organizations. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, &amp; M. F. Peterson (Eds.),\u00a0<em>Handbook of organizational culture &amp; climate<\/em> (pp. 323\u2013338). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 333.<\/p>\n<p>Hirokawa, R. Y. (1979). Communication and the managerial function: Some suggestions for improving organizational communication.\u00a0<em>Communication, 8<\/em>, 83\u201395.<\/p>\n<p>Huseman, R., Lahiff, J., &amp; Wells, R. (1974). Communication thermoclines: Toward a process of identification.\u00a0<em>Personnel Journal, 53<\/em>, 124\u2013135.<\/p>\n<p>Katz, D., &amp; Kahn, R. L. (1966).\u00a0<em>The social psychology of organizations<\/em>. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons.<\/p>\n<p>Redding, W. C. (1966). The empirical study of human communication in business and industry. In P. E. Reid (Ed.),\u00a0<em>The frontiers in experimental speech-communication research\u00a0<\/em>(pp. 47\u201381). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press<\/p>\n<p>Redding, W. C. (1972).\u00a0<em>Communication with the organization: An interpretive review of theory and research.<\/em>\u00a0New York: Industrial Communication Council, Inc.<\/p>\n<p>Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., &amp; McCroskey, L. L. (2005).\u00a0<em>Organizational communication for survival: Making work, work<\/em>\u00a0(3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn &amp; Bacon.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Attribution<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/open.library.okstate.edu\/orgcomm\" rel=\"cc:attributionURL\">Organizational Communication<\/a>\u00a0Copyright \u00a9 by\u00a0Dr. Sarah Hollingsworth\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\" rel=\"license\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>, except where otherwise noted.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_1172_1999\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_1999\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>It's the rules and norms established by an organization for communicative behavior.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_1998\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_1998\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A standard or directive governing how communication occurs within an organization.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2000\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2000\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Messages that start at the top of the hierarchy and are transmitted to the lowest rungs.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2001\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2001\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The ability to force people to obey regardless of their resistance.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_1974\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_1974\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>No other individuals in the organization have the privilege of power.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2002\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2002\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>How management wants an employee to perform their job.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2003\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2003\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Introductory statements\u00a0of the purpose of a specific job and how that job relates to the organization's overarching goal.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2004\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2004\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sequences of steps to be followed in a given situation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2005\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2005\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Behaviors people should do habitually.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2017\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2017\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Courses of action taken in the organization<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2018\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2018\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Standards or directives governing behavior.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2019\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2019\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Payment and entitlements one receives with the job.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_254\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_254\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>information that a receiver sends back to the sender<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2006\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2006\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Occurs when a supervisor explains to a subordinate what they are doing well.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2007\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2007\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Occurs when a supervisor explains areas that need improvement to a subordinate.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2008\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2008\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Feedback that does not only happen in formal review sessions.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2009\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2009\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Instilling an employee with a partisan or ideological point of view.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2010\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2010\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>How truthful a message is.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2011\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2011\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Multiple people in the communication chain.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2012\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2012\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Whether or not the information being transmitted is sufficient to satisfy a requirement or need for information in the workplace.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2013\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2013\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Occurs when subordinates are not provided enough information to complete their jobs.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2014\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2014\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>When subordinates are provided too much information to complete their jobs.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1172_2015\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1172_2015\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>How useful or relevant the information is to the person receiving it.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":133,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1172","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":1163,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1172","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/133"}],"version-history":[{"count":24,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1172\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2594,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1172\/revisions\/2594"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1163"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1172\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1172"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1172"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1172"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/2250organizationalcommunication\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1172"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}