Divergent Cultural Characteristics

Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures

The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures (Hofstede, 2005). He found that in individualistic cultures like the United States and Canada, people value individual freedom and personal independence and perceive their world primarily from their viewpoint. They perceive themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making decisions and impacting their lives. Cultural view is not an either/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values.

In contrast, others focus on a collective viewpoint. Collectivist cultures (Hofstede, 1982), including many in Asia and South America, as well as many Indigenous cultures, prioritize the needs of the nation, community, family, or workers. Ownership and private property are two ways to examine this difference. Property is almost exclusively private in some cultures, while others tend toward community ownership. The collectively owned resource returns benefits to the community. Water, for example, has long been viewed as a community resource, much like air. However, that has changed as businesses and organizations have purchased water rights and gained control over resources. How does someone raised in a culture that emphasizes the community interact with someone raised in a primarily individualistic culture? How could tensions be expressed, and how might this point of divergence influence interactions? In the following sections, these viewpoints will be examined. Trompenaar’s research (1998) suggested that cultures may change more quickly than we realize and showed that Mexico, the former communist countries of Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union have high levels of individualism. Mexico’s involvement in NAFTA and the global economy could explain the shift from a communitarian culture. This contrasts with Hofstede’s earlier research, which found these countries to be collectivist, highlighting the culture’s dynamic and complex nature. Countries with high communitarianism include Germany, China, France, Japan, and Singapore.

Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule Cultures

Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual or by observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures communicate rules in the same way. In an explicit-rule culture, where rules are communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced before the gathering. There may be no agenda in an implicit-rule culture where rules are often understood and communicated nonverbally. Everyone knows why they are gathered and each member’s role, even though the expectations may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral expectations may all be understood; however, to a person from outside this culture, it may prove a challenge to comprehend the rules of the context. “Outsiders” often communicate their “otherness” by not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or how to initiate a conversation if the rules are unclear. While it may be helpful to know that implicit-rule cultures are often more tolerant of deviations from the understood rules, the newcomer will be wise to learn by observing quietly and to conduct as much research ahead of the event as possible.

When people meet each other for the first time, they often use their previous knowledge to understand their current context. People also do this to reduce uncertainty. Some cultures, such as the United States and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to minimize the element of surprise. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.

Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975) developed the Uncertainty Reduction theory to examine this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:

1. There is a high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases, and our uncertainty decreases.
2. Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty decreases, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding to indicate agreement, will be expressed.
3. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.
4. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication interactions tend to be less personal and intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.
5. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication features more reciprocity or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.
6. Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.
7. Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are related to increased liking of the other person.

Time Orientation

Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall (1987) state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider one thing at a time, whereas polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time, and time is considered more fluid. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochromatic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. Canada, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochromatic time orientation. Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time; business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but their actual start time may be another matter. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may be around 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the hosts are not quite ready to receive you.

When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from polychromatic cultures will be used to foreigners’ tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established event times. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in various ways, and understanding this can help you communicate more effectively.

Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation

Do you want your reward right now, or are you willing to dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results do not materialize. Geert Hofstede discusses the relationship between time orientation and culture as a “time horizon,” underscoring the individual’s perspective within a cultural context. Many Asian countries, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including Canada, tend to adopt a more short-term approach to life and results. Indigenous peoples are known for holding a long-term orientation driven by values of deep, long-term reflection and community consultation. If you work within a culture with a short-term orientation, you may need to emphasize reciprocating greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, your host will appreciate your promptness if you send a thank-you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner. While there may be a respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honour, a reflection of identity and integrity. A short-term-oriented culture also values Personal stability and consistency, contributing to a sense of predictability and familiarity. Long-term orientation is often characterized by persistence, thrift, and frugality, as well as an order of relationships based on age and status. A sense of shame is also observed across generations, affecting the family and community. What an individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and extended family members.

Direct versus Indirect

In the United States, business correspondence is generally expected to be concise and direct. “What can I do for you?” is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it is an accepted way of asking the caller to state their business. In some cultures, it is appropriate to make direct personal observations, such as “You’ve changed your hairstyle.” In others, it may be observed but never spoken of in polite company. In indirect cultures, such as those in Latin America, business conversations often begin with discussions of the weather, family, or other topics as partners get to know each other, long before the business topic is introduced. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before entering it, as a social faux pas or error can have a significant impact.

Materialism versus Relationships

Members of a materialistic culture place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, power, and social rank. Suppose you consider the plate of food before you and the labour required to harvest the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal. In that case, you focus more on the relationships with its production than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a luxury and communicate your ability to acquire and offer a delicacy, but it also represents a significant effort. Cultures differ in their views of material objects and their relationships to them, with some valuing people and relationships more highly than the objects themselves. The United States and Japan are often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place more emphasis on relationships.

Low-Power versus High-Power Distance

In low-power distance cultures, according to Hofstede (2009), people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their formal roles as employees and managers. In a high-power distance culture, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input. Suppose you work with people from a high-power distance culture. In that case, you may need to provide extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion, as their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or know there is a significant problem. You may lose valuable information if you are sensitive to cultural orientation and power distance.

To summarize, cultures have distinct orientations regarding rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon, motivation for achievement and success, directness, materialism, and power distance.