{"id":657,"date":"2019-07-31T18:56:34","date_gmt":"2019-07-31T18:56:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/chapter\/cold-war\/"},"modified":"2024-11-12T17:51:59","modified_gmt":"2024-11-12T17:51:59","slug":"cold-war","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/chapter\/cold-war\/","title":{"raw":"Cold War","rendered":"Cold War"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Chapter Outline:<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nFrom civilizations to empires, from colonized to decolonized, and from world wars to \u201ccold wars\u201d! These trips back in time seem to always have some major chaotic event taking place\u2026 Unfortunately, this chapter will be no different. <em>Let\u2019s take a look at how <strong>cold<\/strong> the decades after World War II really were\u2026\u00a0<\/em>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Conflicting Influences &amp; Strategies<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in Asia<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The Middle East<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Latin America and The Cold War<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The US<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Non-Alignment Movement and Bloc (Global South) in response to the Cold War<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"462\"]<img class=\" wp-image-326\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en-1.png\" alt=\"Cold War map\" width=\"462\" height=\"476\" \/> European military alliances during the Cold War[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhen we think of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, we typically imagine the thousands of nuclear missiles each nation pointed toward the other and of a clash of ideologies as communism and capitalism battled for world supremacy. A defining element of the Cold War was that it did not become a hot war. Neither the U.S. nor the U.S.S.R. launched attacks on the territories of the other. Instead, the superpowers supported or intervened in the conflicts of nations in their spheres of influence. To a great extent, the Cold War was a struggle by each superpower to extend its sphere of influence and block the other from doing the same. The Soviets and the Americans justified their actions in a variety of ways.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Creating a buffer-zone to protect the homeland.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Defending like-minded governments against a different political or economic philosophy.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>One side said it was protecting the world from the threat of totalitarian communist imperialism and the other said it was protecting the world from imperialist capitalism. Interestingly, both accused their antagonist of being an empire.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Never fighting directly, the two superpowers fought through proxy wars in the developing world over most of the next five decades.\u00a0 After World War II end's, Eastern Europe and Asia would both be areas of contention between the U.S.S.R. and the \u201cWest\u201d.<\/span>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tfbni6AamZY\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">The first Cold War challenge to post-war peace occurred in Greece, where communist and non-communist anti-Nazi partisans began fighting for control shortly after the Germans withdrew from their country in late 1944. When the war ended, this conflict soon turned into a full-blown civil war. However, Greece was outside of the Stalin's sphere of influence. The British and Americans began supporting the beleaguered parliamentary monarchy against the communists, who were defeated in 1947. The conflict in Greece showcased the new <em><strong>\"Truman Doctrine\"<\/strong><\/em> of containment, under which the U.S. was willing to concede to Soviet domination of Eastern Europe, but would \"contain\" the spread of communist regimes in any other country.<\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/5QuSXZTo3Uo[\/embed]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-638\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_.png\" alt=\"iron curtain map\" width=\"400\" height=\"428\" \/> The Iron Curtain in black, with a black dot representing West Berlin. Warsaw Pact countries in red, NATO members in blue. Militarily neutral countries in gray. Yugoslavia, member country of the Non-Aligned Movement, in green.\u00a0 Communist Albania broke off contacts with the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, aligning itself with China after the Sino-Soviet split; it appears stripe-hatched with grey.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn 1946, former Prime Minister Winston Churchill visited President Harry Truman in his home state of Missouri and made a speech at Westminster College. Churchill said the situation in Europe felt as if Stalin had dropped an \"iron curtain\" separating East from West. It was an apt description: neither the Soviets nor the new communist regimes permitted free travel between the two sides. The division of. Europe into East and West was complicated by the Allied agreement to occupy defeated Germany in four sectors: U.S., British, French, and Soviet. The German capital Berlin was also divided into quarters by the four former allies, even though it was surrounded by Soviet-occupied East Germany. The division of Germany was completed when the western portion uniting in a federal republic, the <em>Bundesrepublik Deutschland <\/em>(GDR), in October 1949, complete with elections and multiple political parties. At the same time, East Germany became the <em>Deutsche Demokratische Republik<\/em> (DDR), a one-party communist satellite state of the Soviet Union.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=aIEAzmh2nfs\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"401\"]<img class=\" wp-image-639\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"401\" height=\"268\" \/> During the winter of 1947, thousands protest in West Germany against the disastrous food situation. The sign says, \"We want coal, we want bread.\"[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTo try to prevent a drift toward socialism in nations struggling with food shortages and rebuilding from the destruction of the war, the United States launched the <em><strong>Marshall Plan<\/strong><\/em> in 1948 to rebuild western Europe. The Soviets responded to the $15 billion aid program with an order that their satellite nations reject it, because the financial assistance came with the condition of economic cooperation that Stalin worried would make small nations like Yugoslavia dependent on western corporations. The United States was anxious to rebuild Europe as quickly as possible, not only to reopen markets for U.S. goods, but also to counter the influence of growing communist parties in Italy, France, and other Western European countries. U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall shipped food and other material aid, and provided financial support to any European country who requested it. The result was the largely capitalist rebuilding of Western Europe and West Germany, while Eastern Europe began industrializing by following Soviet-inspired <em><strong>Five-Year Plans<\/strong><\/em>.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"wp-image-640 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_.png\" alt=\"NATO flag\" width=\"299\" height=\"224\" \/>European nations entered new military alliances along East-West lines as well. The superpowers adopted a policy of \"<em>mutually assured destruction<\/em>\" as a means of preventing a conflict which would almost certainly have destroyed most of the humans and probably much of life on the planet.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=X1El1GVQVdc\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-641\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958.jpg\" alt=\"Nikita Khrushchev\" width=\"400\" height=\"543\" \/> Nikita Khrushchev, Time Magazine's Man of the Year for 1957[\/caption]\r\n\r\nStalin died in 1953 and after a power struggle in the Politburo a new Premier, <em><strong>Nikita Khrushchev<\/strong><\/em>, took power in Moscow. Khrushchev distanced himself from what he called Stalin's \"cult of personality\" and revealed the extent of Stalin\u2019s atrocities against perceived political enemies, which had led to the deaths of millions in purges, forced labor, and famine in the previous decades.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_aF_sRXVdoU\r\n\r\nKhrushchev announced a new Soviet foreign policy of \"peaceful coexistence\" with the West, pledging not to extend communism by invading other countries but creating a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, within the Soviet Bloc in Europe to counterbalance NATO.\u00a0 Khrushchev wanted Soviet communism to provide a higher standard of living for workers. Achieving this was difficult if the military budget was too large, so he sought to lessen tensions with the U.S. and its allies. But there were limits to Khrushchev's \"liberalism\". In 1956, d<span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">emocratic reforms in Hungary led to a possibility of spreading anti-Soviet dissent in neighboring communist countries under Moscow's control. The Soviets and their Warsaw Pact satellite countries sent troops and tanks to repress any political changes in Hungary and Eastern Europe.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h3>The Cold War in Asia<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Y2IcmLkuhG0&amp;t=3s\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=1QZUsesFtCc\r\n\r\nAn additional hotspot is Tibet, a Himalayan region historically dominated by the Chinese Empire that became an independent nation run by Buddhist monks during the chaotic early years of the Chinese Republic in the 1920s. <em><strong>Mao Zedong<\/strong><\/em> decided to reclaim Tibet for his new People's Republic, and sent in troops in 1951. <span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><em><strong>Tenzin Gyatso<\/strong><\/em>, the Dalai Lama from that time is still the exiled spiritual leader of Tibet, and the \u201cFree Tibet\u201d movement is very active around the world.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"441\"]<img class=\" wp-image-740\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/Jokhang_Temple_Lhasa_Tibet_China_\u897f\u85cf_\u62c9\u8428_\u5927\u662d\u5bfa_-_panoramio_6.jpg#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"Lhasa\" width=\"441\" height=\"331\" \/> Looking across the square at Jokhang temple, Lhasa Tibet.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span class=\"TextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|114&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778129,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">Internally, Mao's own totalitarian style had disastrous consequences for the Chinese.\u00a0 The communists had already begun land reform around 1946 in the parts of China they controlled, well before their final victory; the policy had gained them widespread support among the vast peasant population. With the nationalists out of the way, Mao\u2019s policy became more aggressive. <\/span><\/span>He called for the elimination of the landlord class of peasants and redistribution of the land more evenly. Unfortunately, when Mao said elimination, he meant it. Class-motivated mass killings of landlords continued for the next 30 years and estimates of the death tolls range from 14 million to 28 million.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-642\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4.jpg\" alt=\"Backyard furnaces\" width=\"400\" height=\"561\" \/> Backyard furnaces in China during the Great Leap Forward era produced very poor steel and a lot of pollution.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe purge of landlords was followed by the <em><strong>Great Leap Forward<\/strong><\/em>, an economic and social plan from 1958 to 1962 that collectivized agriculture and promoted industry. Mao set up 25,000 \u201cpeople\u2019s communes\u201d of 5,000 families each, which would be responsible for not only feeding themselves and their fellow Chinese citizens, but for providing surpluses to export. Mao insisted on keeping grain exports high in spite of poor harvests. The famine that resulted, known as the <em><strong>Great Chinese Famine<\/strong><\/em>, killed 55 million people, although a few million were apparently beaten to death and millions more committed suicide. In some regions of China, people resorted to cannibalism.\r\n\r\n<span class=\"TextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\">This disaster caused some prominent communist party members to question Mao's leadership, but he maintained support in the army and blamed the famine on a lack of socialist commitment among the Chinese. Mao initiated his <em><strong>Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution<\/strong><\/em> in 1966, leading the military to recruit young people to reinforce Maoist ideology and purge remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. Schools and universities were closed, and Red Guard troops were encouraged to harass and even murder intellectuals. Educated people were beaten, terrorized, and banished to the countryside to be \u201creeducated\u201d by the peasants. The death toll of the cultural revolution is debated, but estimates range from 3 to 10 million.\u202f<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"eop\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|115&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;eop&quot;,469778129,&quot;eop&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">\u200b<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;134233117&quot;:true,&quot;134233118&quot;:true}\"> It delayed Chinese industrialization and modernization, and a generation of Chinese were deprived of an education.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"718\"]<img class=\" wp-image-742\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/1967-11_1967\u5e74_\u6bdb\u6cfd\u4e1c\u63a5\u89c1\u7ea2\u536b\u5175\u6cb9\u753b-scaled.jpg#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" width=\"718\" height=\"384\" \/> Propaganda oil painting of Mao and students holding up his \"Little Red Book\" during the Cultural Revolution, 1967.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h3>The Cold War in the Middle East<\/h3>\r\nIn the last chapter, we examined how the establishment of Israel in 1948 immediately led to a series of conflicts with its Arab neighbors. The defeat of Arab forces by Israel in 1949 led to a surge of Arab nationalism, led by Egyptian leader <em><strong>Gamal Abdul Nasser<\/strong><\/em>, who became head of state in 1954 after a military coup that ended the Egyptian monarchy. Nasser's popularity was cemented when he took control of the<em> Suez Canal<\/em>, surrounded by Egypt but administered by the British and French, in 1956. In this crisis, t<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">he U.S. and U.S.S.R. forced Great Britain, France, and Israel to accept Egyptian control of the canal to avoid a larger conflict. Nasser became a hero for the Arab world, standing up to both the old colonial powers and what the Arabs saw as their creation, the new state of Israel.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"398\"]<img class=\" wp-image-643\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954.jpg\" alt=\"Nasser greeted by crowds\" width=\"398\" height=\"352\" \/> Nasser greeted by crowds in Alexandria one day after his announcement of the British withdrawal and<br \/>a failed assassination attempt against him, October 1954.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nNasser's ruling model became an inspiration for many Arabs.\u00a0 Like <em><strong>Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk<\/strong><\/em> in Turkey in the 1920s, Nasser established a secular state dedicated to improving the lives of ordinary people. He largely separated religion and politics, supported government intervention in the economy to prevent foreign control, and provided more and better social services. Nasser, a former army colonel, also relied on the military as the most reliable and disciplined institution to maintain unity and order. This \"Nasserism\" became the ideology of the Ba'ath Party, formed in Syria and later in Iraq in the 1950s among military officers.\r\n\r\nThe Egyptian leader skillfully took advantage of Cold War politics, playing the United States and the Soviet Union against each other in order to gain military and economic aid. The Soviets in particular supported the construction of the massive <em>Aswan Dam<\/em>, completed in stages by 1970 to control the flooding of the Nile while providing hydroelectric power to Egypt.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"517\"]<img class=\" wp-image-644\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein.jpg\" alt=\"Nasser, Arafat, Hussein\" width=\"517\" height=\"280\" \/> Nasser (center) mediating an agreement between Yasser Arafat and Jordanian King Hussein, during the emergency Arab League summit, September 1970.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nNasser preached <em><strong>pan-Arabism<\/strong><\/em>, the goal that all Arabs should be united in one federated nation. Egypt and Syria briefly united under this model in the early 1960s, while after Nasser's death, <span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Libya, Syria, and Iraq federated for a time in the\u00a0<\/span>1970s. The liberation of Algeria from France in 1962 was a moment of inspiration; another was the unification of Palestinians in the <em><strong>Palestine Liberation Organization<\/strong><\/em> in 1964, led by <em><strong>Yasser Arafat<\/strong> <\/em>and his Fatah Party. Hatred and resentment for Israel was (and remains) a powerful unifying factor in the region. Arab resistance and Cold War considerations led the U.S. to continue its support of Israel, which was supported by Jewish Americans, but also by Christian fundamentalist evangelicals, many of whom consider the reestablishment of Israel as the beginning of the apocalyptical End Times and the return of the Messiah. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union sought allies in the Middle East, which was much closer to its borders than to America. Russia still maintains its only naval base on the Mediterranean in Syria, dating from the time it began supporting the Ba'athi Assad family in that country in the late 1970s.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-645\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_.jpg\" alt=\"Mosaddegh with Truman\" width=\"400\" height=\"502\" \/> Prime Minister Mosaddegh with US President Truman in 1951[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe places Muslims and Christians most often find themselves in conflict are often where western Europeans and Americans have been very active in extracting natural resources from territories occupied by Muslims. Western oil companies in the Persian Gulf, for example, have had a decisive role in the relationships between the governments of Britain and the US and the people and governments of the region. For example, when the Iranian Prime Minister, <em><strong>Mohammad\u00a0Mosaddegh<\/strong><\/em>, decided to nationalize the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (now BP), Winston Churchill convinced Harry S. Truman that Mosaddegh had to go. Britain\u2019s MI-6 and the CIA organized a coup against the elected government of Iran and installed <em><strong>Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi<\/strong><\/em> as ruler of Iran in 1953 to insure a steady flow of oil out of Iran.\u00a0\u200b\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\n\u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\nOil production in Iran rose quickly from less than a million barrels per day in the 1950s to 6 million barrels daily in the mid-1970s.\u00a0 However, the oil boom of the 1970s widened the gap between the rich and poor in Iran. The Shah began a policy of embracing western culture and westernizing Iran; conservative Muslims objected. The new consumer goods and cultural changes were generally available only to the richest Iranians, and were not accompanied by political liberalization. The Shah\u2019s secret police force, <em>SAVAK<\/em>, terrorized the population and routinely assassinated the Shah\u2019s critics. In 1977, SAVAK killed several Islamic leaders including <em><strong>Mostafa Khomeini<\/strong><\/em>, son of the ayatollah. \u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"628\"]<img class=\" wp-image-646\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"armed protesters\" width=\"628\" height=\"414\" \/> Armed protesters in front of a banner that says, \"Long live anti-imperialism and democratic forces\".[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\n\u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\nThe outbreak of the Iranian Revolution caught the Shah by surprise. When the Muslim clergy announced an open-air prayer meeting on the annual holiday marking the end of Ramadan, the Shah panicked and declared martial law. 5,000 protesters took to the streets of Tehran. The army fired into the crowd, killing 64 people. The ayatollah Khomeini claimed 4,000 people had been killed and workers at Tehran\u2019s oil refineries and government workers declared a general strike that brought the economy to a standstill. By early December, more than 10% of the Iranian people were marching in anti-Shah demonstrations. The U.S. Government was hated for helping to install the Shah, and also for statements by President <em><strong>Jimmy Carter<\/strong> <\/em>supporting the Iranian Government and the \u201cspecial relationship\u201d the Shah had with the U.S.\u00a0 The ailing Shah abandoned Iran, eventually arriving for treatment in the United States, while Khomeini proclaimed a new Islamic Republic.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=E-WgNf6mn2k\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_647\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-647\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran.jpg\" alt=\"Iranian students\" width=\"400\" height=\"297\" \/> Iranian students storming the US Embassy in Tehran, November 1979.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">However, the new Iranian regime also confronted resistance from the Arab world, especially from Iraqi leader <em><strong>Saddam Hussein<\/strong><\/em>. Not only were the Iranians Persian, rather than Arab, most were also followers of Shia Islam, rather than the more common Sunni branch which is prevalent in the Arab world and among all Muslims. Although Shi'ites and Sunnis had lived in peace for centuries, Iran's new clerical state was deemed a threat by its Arab neighbors, especially by the conservative Sunni regime in Saudi Arabia.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">Iraq, however, had its own particularities: not only were the specifically Shia holy sites located in Saddam Hussein's country, but a majority of the Iraqis were Shi'ite Arabs as well. Hussein, meanwhile, was a Ba'athist, promoting Arab nationalism in a secular state ruled by his military. <\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|114&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778129,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">In September 1980 he sent his armies into Iran <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun AdvancedProofingIssueV2 SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\">in an attempt to<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\"> take advantage of what they supposed would be political chaos. Hussein claimed that he was protecting Arabs living in the Iranian border region, although conveniently, these areas also had vast oil deposits. The Iran-Iraq War lasted 8 years and, like the hostage crisis, helped consolidate the power of the Khomeini regime. The US, USSR, France, and many Arab countries provided support for Iraq, which used chemical weapons against Iranian military and civilian targets. The death toll has been estimated as 800,000 Iranians and up to 500,000 Iraqis.\u202f<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"eop\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|115&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;eop&quot;,469778129,&quot;eop&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">\u200b<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"414\"]<img class=\" wp-image-648\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1.jpg\" alt=\"An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the Iran\u2013Iraq War.\" width=\"414\" height=\"285\" \/> An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the Iran\u2013Iraq War.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">Hussein had gained nothing in the war but debt and demands for autonomy by non-Arab ethnic Kurds in northern Iraq; he responded with chemical attacks on civilian Kurdish populations. In 1990, the Iraqi dictator then decided to incorporate Kuwait into his nation, claiming that it had historically been part of Mesopotamia (which was plausible, given the absurd way the British had drawn national boundaries after World War I). The United Nations, led by the U.S. pushed Hussein out of Kuwait. Not even the Saudis wanted the Iraqi dictator to take the tiny kingdom, which despite its size had as much oil as Iraq. However, although it decimated Hussein's retreating army on the infamous \"<em>Highway of Death<\/em>\", the coalition stopped short of toppling Hussein himself, which would have consequences over the next two decades.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h3>Latin America and the Cold War<\/h3>\r\nThe twentieth century began in Latin America with the <em>Mexican Revolution<\/em>, when <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">Pancho Villa in northern Mexico and Emiliano Zapata in southern Mexico created an opportunity for new liberal forces led by Alvaro Obregon. After defeating Villa on the battlefield, Obregon held a constitutional convention in 1917 which produced a document that embraced agrarian reform, an eight-hour work day and the right to organize labor unions; and a declaration that the subsoil belongs to the state in the name of the people. The was a return to the tradition of the Spanish Empire that subsurface minerals belonged to the people or to the state, rather than to individuals or companies. These ideas were inspirational for the rest of Latin America and even other parts of the world: the Mexican Revolution predated the Bolshevik Revolution by several months.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_754\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-754\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/2880px-Logo_Petro\u0301leos_Mexicanos.svg_.png#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"PEMEX Logo\" width=\"400\" height=\"153\" \/> Logo of Petr\u00f3leos Mexicanos, the state-owned oil company established by C\u00e1rdenas. The motto means, \"For the rescue of sovereignty\".[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIt took a generation for Mexico to realize this goal, but in the 1930s, under President <em><strong>L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas<\/strong><\/em>, land reform was implemented that brought back indigenous communal landholdings, broken up during the Diaz period. And in 1938, C\u00e1rdenas nationalized Mexican oil, taking over leases given to U.S. and British oil companies. The American president, <em><strong>Franklin Roosevelt<\/strong><\/em>, who had begun a \"Good Neighbor Policy\" toward Latin America when he took office, to emphasize trade and cooperation rather than military force, did not intervene when oil companies objected. Britain acquiesced in order to assure Mexican support in what everyone understood would soon be the next world war.\r\n\r\nC\u00e1rdenas was part of a wave of populist heads of state in Latin America, charismatic leaders who tried to address the needs of \"the people,\" which by the 1930s and 1940s included rural peasants as well as the urban working class. Latin American Populism also attracted a rising professional middle class, shut out of political power by traditional oligarchies. In Argentina, this new middle class included first-generation immigrants from Europe who supported a new Radical Party in the first decades of the twentieth century. Argentina was second only to the United States as an immigration choice for impoverished Europeans, particularly Italians, Germans, and Eastern European Jews. In other cases, army officers who had received professional training either at home or abroad by European military missions felt that the oligarchs were insufficiently patriotic and needed to be replaced.\r\n\r\nThe populists also supported nationalist economic measures, including p<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">olicies of import substitution industrialization, land reform, and efforts to reduce dependency on international markets for their mining or agricultural goods. The crisis of the Great Depression emphasized the importance of building independent domestic economies and instituting education, housing, and infrastructure improvements for all of the people. The global war against fascism inspired many to embrace democracy and overthrow long-standing military regimes, like in Guatemala, Venezuela, and Cuba;\u00a0 although these attempts at democratic practices were frequently short-lived.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"603\"]<img class=\" wp-image-649\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg\" alt=\"Vargas and Roosevelt\" width=\"603\" height=\"427\" \/> Brazilian President Get\u00falio Vargas (left) and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt (right) in 1936[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nTwo of the most notable populist leaders are also examples of civilian and military versions of populism: <em><strong>Get\u00falio Vargas of Brazil and Juan Per\u00f3n of Argentina<\/strong><\/em>. Vargas was an opposition candidate who lost in a fraudulent election to an oligarchy-backed candidate in 1930; a brief uprising made him president. He skillfully faced down a separatist revolt in the wealthy coffee state of Sao Paulo, but after embracing a degree of liberal democracy, in 1937 Vargas established an authoritarian state in order to prevent communist-supported leftists being elected. However, he also rooted out a new fascist movement and disbanded it as well, setting himself up to accept U.S. aid and support the Allies in World War II. Brazil was the only nation in Latin America to send troops to fight alongside the Allies in Europe. Vargas stepped down in 1945, but ran again for president in 1950 and was reelected.\r\n\r\nPer\u00f3n, on the other hand, was an army officer who had served as a military attache in Italy in the 1930s, witnessing up close the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini. Argentina at the time was governed by politicians elected through fraud that suppressed calls for\u00a0 reform by the Radical Party. In 1943, in the midst of World War II, the military overthrew the corrupt regime, instituting a government that they felt was more dignified and responded more directly to the people. Juan Per\u00f3n, a key player in the coup, chose to become the Minister of Labor. By guaranteeing labor law and favoring the workers in negotiations, he became popular among the urban masses in Buenos Aires. Although the military regime grew nervous about his growing popularity and had Per\u00f3n arrested, the workers came to his aid. He was released and was elected president of Argentina in 1946.\r\n\r\nPer\u00f3n benefited from a postwar economic boom in Argentina. He could promise and deliver on higher wages, better living and working conditions, and vacations for workers as tax revenues rolled in because of high international prices for Argentine wheat and beef. In the context of the Cold War, Per\u00f3n proclaimed that he represented a \"third way\" between unfettered capitalism and totalitarian communism. Per\u00f3n claimed that his government improved the lives of Argentinians without having to take sides in the superpower conflict. This made him particularly annoying to the United States, which often had to face Argentine opposition at regional conferences.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_755\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"298\"]<img class=\" wp-image-755\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/Eva_Duarte_de_Pero\u0301n_en_Espan\u0303a.jpg#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" width=\"298\" height=\"390\" \/> President Juan Per\u00f3n and his wife, \"Evita\", arrive in Madrid.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPer\u00f3n bet on never-ending good times, especially when it seemed that the Korean War might lead to a World War III in which Argentina would benefit. However, shortly after he was reelected in 1952, Per\u00f3n's popular wife, Eva Duarte, died of ovarian cancer at age 33. Hundreds of thousands attended her funeral and a cult of \u201cSanta Evita\u201d quickly took hold. The Argentine economy began to suffer as the world recovered from World War II and Argentina faced competition for its wheat and beef in the international market. Like Vargas, Per\u00f3n also faced inflation and political<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\"> scandals. A bitter fight with the Catholic Church led to Per\u00f3n's ouster by the military in 1955 and the suppression of the Peronist movement until Peron was invited back from exile to be reelected president in 1973.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nAlthough the United States congratulated itself that it had replaced blatant military intervention and \u201cdollar diplomacy\u201d with a \u201cGood Neighbor Policy\u201d under Franklin Roosevelt, nations like Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras were still thoroughly dominated by the United Fruit Company (UFC); still Banana Republics.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=esvycD1O3cM\r\n\r\nAfter World War II, the Dulles brothers became leaders in developing U.S. foreign policy in Latin America. John Foster Dulles was a corporate lawyer who had helped negotiate huge land giveaways to UFC by the governments of Guatemala and Honduras. After serving as a Senator from New York, Dulles was appointed secretary of State by Dwight Eisenhower in 1953. His brother Allen Dulles was on UFC\u2019s board of directors before he served as President Eisenhower\u2019s CIA Director.\r\n\r\nIn 1954 the democratically-elected government of Guatemala began talking about seizing some of the vast tracts of land the United Fruit Company had acquired but was not using. The government planned to buy back the land from UFC and redistribute it to the poor. The Dulles brothers accused the Guatemalan government of having close ties with the Soviets and sent in the CIA to overthrow it in a military coup. Guatemalans resisted the new regime and the country fell into a civil war that lasted from 1960 to 1996 and killed up to 200,000 people. \u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">\u200b<\/span>\r\n<div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_651\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"514\"]<img class=\" wp-image-650\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg\" alt=\"Eisenhower and Dulles\" width=\"514\" height=\"404\" \/> President Dwight Eisenhower with John Foster Dulles, 1956.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne of the key elements of Latin America\u2019s relationship with the outside world seems to be the question of revolution and the threat nations like the U.S. claimed to fear, of socialist, anti-capitalist movements in the Western Hemisphere. In many cases the anti-capitalism expressed by Latin Americans was actually resistance to what they perceived as economic imperialism by nations like the U.S., which regularly defended American-based corporations that operated freely in their nations and often intervened in their politics.\r\n\r\nThe conflict over land reform in Guatemala was misrepresented by the Dulles brothers. The Guatemalan government offered UFC a price for the lands it took back based on the values claimed in the corporation\u2019s tax filings. It may have been an open secret that UFC was defrauding the Guatemalan government, but the government was well within its rights to call that bluff. A truly communist government determined to eliminate capitalism in Guatemala might simply have claimed UFC had acquired the lands illegally and taken them with no offer of compensation. \u200b\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_651\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"399\"]<img class=\" wp-image-651\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952.jpg\" alt=\"Guevara with Alberto Granado\" width=\"399\" height=\"272\" \/> Guevara (right) with Alberto Granado (left) in June 1952 on the Amazon River aboard their wooden raft, which was a gift from the lepers whom they had treated during their motorcycle journey.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMany idealists in Latin America and elsewhere were radicalized by the violence nations such as the United States approved or initiated to protect the interests of corporations but justified as defenses of democracy. An example of this was the experience of <em><strong>Ernesto \u201cChe\u201d Guevara<\/strong><\/em>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\nAfter witnessing the revolutionary change in Bolivia, Guevara went to Guatemala and watched a similar attempt crushed by imperialist armies operating to protect corporate profits. This experience and his romance with a Peruvian Marxist economist named <em><strong>Hilda Gadea Acosta<\/strong><\/em>, who he married in 1955, radicalized Che. When he was placed on an enemies list by the new Guatemalan regime, Guevara escaped to Mexico where he met <em><strong>Ra\u00fal and Fidel Castro<\/strong><\/em>, who were in exile there following a failed revolutionary coup in Cuba.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_652\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-652\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel.jpg\" alt=\"Che and Fidel \" width=\"400\" height=\"535\" \/> Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, 1961.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nGuevara became an ally of the Castro's in June 1955 and joined the revolution. About 80 revolutionaries arrived in late November 1956 on the eastern tip of Cuba, but their numbers were reduced to about 20 in their first skirmish with Fulgencio Battista\u2019s army. The survivors fled into the Sierra Maestra mountains and enlisted peasants into a guerilla army that harried the Cuban army for the next two years. In 1958, Guevara explained the guerillas\u2019 success: \u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\n\u202f\u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n<blockquote>\u201cThe enemy soldier in the Cuban example which at present concerns us, is the junior partner of the dictator; he is the man who gets the last crumb left by a long line of profiteers that begins in\u00a0Wall Street\u00a0and ends with him. He is disposed to defend his privileges, but he is disposed to defend them only to the degree that they are important to him. His salary and his pension are worth some suffering and some dangers, but they are never worth his life. If the price of maintaining them will cost it, he is better off giving them up; that is to say, withdrawing from the face of the\u00a0guerrilla danger.\u201d\u200b<\/blockquote>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\n\u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\nThe Cold War was played out mostly through proxy wars: regional conflicts like the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Russia-Afghanistan War where the combatants were provisioned, supported, and sometimes joined by troops from the superpowers. Occasionally, the heat level increased and the U.S. and U.S.S.R. barely avoided direct conflict. One of those times was during the <em><strong>Cuban Missile Crisis<\/strong><\/em>. The western bloc had placed ICBM missiles in Italy and Turkey (a member of NATO) under President Eisenhower's direction in the late 1950s. These missiles could hit the U.S.S.R. capital of Moscow (Moskva) and in response the U.S.S.R. with its ally Fidel Castro, placed missiles in Cuba capable of hitting the mainland U.S. including Washington D.C. The tense standoff brought the world the closest it has been to nuclear war in 1962. Fortunately, both sides deescalated the conflict under the leadership of U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Union Premier Nikita Kruschev. Interestingly, Kruschev had taken over after the death of Stalin in 1953, but would be pushed out of power in 1964, partly due to the Turkish-Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy would fare even worse, assassinated in 1963 in an assassination allegedly by Lee Harvey Oswald, who had once defected from the United States to the Soviet Union. The assassination had all sorts of Cold War connections and overtones to it that could have led to further conflict between the bloc powers, yet once again, cooler heads prevailed with Lyndon Johnson becoming president and the Soviet Union claiming no involvement in the assassination. Assassinations and regime overthrows were the norm in the Cold War, often engineered by one Cold War bloc power or the other.\u00a0 The events of the Cuban Revolution, the Missile Crisis, the President Kennedy assassination, and Krushchev losing power can all be viewed in that larger context of the game of power for the two bloc empires and their colonial reach through economics, assassination, regime change, and more.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=bwWW3sbk4EU\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\nFidel Castro continued as Cuban president until 2008 when his brother Raul became President. Fidel died in 2016 and Raul handed over the Presidency in 2018, although he remained the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba until his retirement in 2021. Yet, what became of Che?\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Q7_kHRytn3k\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_653\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"399\"]<img class=\" wp-image-653\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2.jpg\" alt=\"Hugo Ch\u00e1vez\" width=\"399\" height=\"271\" \/> Venezuelan President Hugo Ch\u00e1vez relied on oil revenue to run programs for the poor, but failed to diversify his economy.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTwentieth-century cold-war conflicts involving Oil have not been limited to the Persian Gulf. Development of Venezuela\u2019s oil resources, thought to be at least a fifth of known global reserves, began in the 1910s when the country\u2019s president granted concessions to his friends to explore, drill, and refine oil. These concessions were quickly sold to foreign oil companies. In 1941 a reform government gained power and passed the Hydrocarbons Law of 1943 under which the government would receive 50% of the profits of the oil industry. The outbreak of World War II had increased demand for oil, and the Venezuelan government granted a series of new concessions that were snapped up in spite of the 50% tax. The postwar explosion of automobile ownership in the U.S. continued to drive demand, and Venezuelan production increased. Venezuela bought the Cities Service company and CITGO gas became a key export of Venezuela. In 1976, the government nationalized the oil industry. Oil was a mixed blessing for Venezuela, providing high levels of revenue to support government programs benefitting the people; but also preventing Venezuelan industry from diversifying. However, the CITGO sign became a welcome sight for many New Englanders, as the company has donated millions of gallons of home heating oil to help hundreds of thousands of families in the Northeastern United States over several decades. \u200b\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n\r\nDuring the 1950s and 1960s colonialism slowly ended in Africa, although not without major atrocities like the Belgian Congo Civil War (1976-1992) or the British oppression of the Kikuyu in Kenya in a conflict the British still lost, despite having overwhelming force on their side. In South Africa, the white government of F. W. De Klerk, who became president in 1989, finally began to dismantle the apartheid system that had oppressed the black majority for generations. Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) was a member of a royal native family of the Xhosa people who became a lawyer in Johannesburg and became active in politics after the white government began instituting apartheid policies in the 1940s. Apartheid was a system of racial segregation that completely separated the black majority from the white rulers and deprived them of political and civil rights. Mandela became president of the African National Congress (ANC), an organization established in 1912 to defend the rights of native Africans and mixed-race people in South Africa. \u00a0He was arrested in 1956 for sedition and treason. Despite a commitment to non-violence, Mandela began leading acts of sabotage against government properties in 1961 and was convicted in 1962 and sentenced to life in prison.\u00a0\u00a0\u200b\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_654\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"399\"]<img class=\" wp-image-654\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg\" alt=\"De Klerk and Mandela\" width=\"399\" height=\"344\" \/> Frederik de Klerk and Nelson Mandela shake hands at the Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum in 1992.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDe Klerk visited Nelson Mandela in prison a few months after becoming President and spoke with him for 3 hours. In 1990, De Klerk called for a new Constitution and shut down South Africa\u2019s nuclear weapons program. Then he freed Mandela after 27 years as a political prisoner and lifted the ban on the ANC operating as a political party. After losing the presidential election to him in 1994, De Klerk served as one of Mandela\u2019s Deputy Presidents from 1994-6. Mandela served as president for a single term and then stepped down. He focused on reconciliation while in office and in his retirement devoted himself to combatting poverty and AIDS.\u00a0\u00a0\u200b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h3>Cold War in the US<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9C72ISMF_D0\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-655\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"J. Edgar Hoover\" width=\"400\" height=\"504\" \/> J. Edgar Hoover, head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1961.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMcCarthyism was part of a widespread anticommunist propaganda campaign directed at Cold War America by the U.S. government. In 1956, Hoover began a counterintelligence program, <em><strong>COINTELPRO<\/strong><\/em>, to disrupt the <em><strong>Communist Party of the USA<\/strong><\/em> (CPUSA). The scope of Hoover\u2019s suspicions and COINTELPRO\u2019s targets grew to include civil rights groups, feminists, environmentalists, Native American activists, and anti-war protestors before the program\u2019s dissolution in 1971. The program\u2019s domestic espionage and psychological warfare tactics were widely criticized. Many believed the FBI had greatly overstepped its authority; some even accused COINTELPRO of planning the assassinations of some of the program\u2019s targets.\r\n\r\nIn Congress, the <em><strong>House Un-American Activities Committe<\/strong><strong>e<\/strong><strong> (HUAC)<\/strong><\/em> and the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations held over a hundred investigations and hearings on communist influence in American society between 1949 and 1954. The <em><strong>Internal Security Act<\/strong><\/em>, passed by Congress in September 1950, required all \u201ccommunist organizations\u201d to register with the government, gave the government greater powers to investigate sedition, and made it possible to prevent suspected individuals from gaining or keeping their citizenship. McCarthy's and Hoover's witch-hunts hurled accusations and ruined careers less on people's communist sentiments and more on their opposition to civil rights and anti-war protestors.\r\n\r\nThe arms race was not only about nuclear technology, but also a contest to improve the distance and accuracy of missiles which could carry a nuclear load. The missile race indirectly led to the space race, as both the U.S. and the Soviets initiated programs for space exploration. <span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">Germany\u2019s top rocket scientist, <em><strong>Wernher von Braun<\/strong><\/em>, surrendered to U.S. troops and eventually became the leader of the American space program. About 1,600 German scientists and engineers found their way into the American program. The Soviet Union\u2019s program was managed by Red Army colonel <em><strong>Sergei Korolev<\/strong><\/em>, although the Soviet program also had about 2,000 Germans. Both engineering teams worked to adapt German rocket technology to create an <em>intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)<\/em> that could carry the new nuclear weapons.\u00a0 <\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_656\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"235\"]<img class=\" wp-image-656\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Apollo 11\" width=\"235\" height=\"679\" \/> The Apollo 11 Saturn V rocket lifts off, July 16, 1969.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">The Soviets achieved success in the missile race first. They even used the ICBM launch vehicle in October 1957, to send Sputnik, the world\u2019s first human-made satellite, into orbit. It was a decisive technological victory, and the Soviet propaganda ministry took full advantage of the opportunity to begin a space race while at the same time warning the U.S. that it could deliver nuclear weapons to American targets.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\nThe U.S. government rushed to perfect its own ICBM technology and in 1958 established the <em><strong>National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)<\/strong><\/em> to launch satellites and astronauts into space. While the American space program struggled, the Soviet Union\u2019s Luna 2 capsule became the first human-made object to touch the moon in September 1959. Then the U.S.S.R. successfully launched a pair of dogs (Belka and Strelka) into orbit and returned them to Earth alive in August 1960 while the American Mercury program languished behind schedule. Cosmonaut <em><strong>Yuri Gagarin<\/strong><\/em> was launched into orbit on April 12, 1961. American astronaut <em><strong>Alan Shepard<\/strong><\/em> accomplished a suborbital flight in the Freedom 7 capsule on May 5. The United States had been embarrassed, and <em><strong>John Kennedy<\/strong><\/em> used America\u2019s frustration over early losses in the \u201cspace race\u201d to bolster funding for a manned moon landing, which succeeded on July 20, 1969.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nThe Cold War ended with the 80s.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Between 1989 and 1991, the Soviet system collapsed and Russia lost control of its Eastern European satellites.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In October 1989, East Germany\u2019s longtime leader, Erich Honecker, resigned. <em>Erich Honecker had been instrumental in building the Berlin Wall in 1961.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tearing down the wall and reunifying Germany in 1990 were milestones in the end of the Cold War.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as President of the USSR in a televised speech, and handed over the Soviet nuclear codes to Yeltsin. The following day, the U.S.S.R. was dissolved and Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev\u2019s office at the Kremlin.\u00a0\u00a0\u200b<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\u200bThe collapse of the Soviet Union left the US as the world\u2019s only superpower. This was not welcome news to some of the officials of the old U.S.S.R. We\u2019ll look at how these people consolidated their power in the new Russia when we discuss Globalization in the next chapter.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RIUd5Cc3S6I\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Non-Alignment Movement of the Global South in Response to the Cold War<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_717\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-717\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_.png\" alt=\"Map of Non-Aligned Movement nations as of 2020.\" width=\"800\" height=\"407\" \/> Map of NAM or Non-Aligned Movement Nations. Member nations are in dark blue, the observer nations are in light blue.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">Not all nations were allied with the Cold War eastern and western blocs of power. Originally the eastern or communist bloc centered on the U.S.S.R.\/China bloc until that bloc split in the 1970s partly due to U.S. intervention from President Nixon. The western or capitalist bloc centered on the United States and European NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) members but the rise of capitalist Japan in the 1980s and other nations also altered the western bloc of power.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">In response to this bipartite model of global power, a group of Non-Aligned Movement nations met at the Africa-Asia conference in 1955 and by 1961 had emerged officially as NAM or a third bloc of power in the Cold War with key nations such as India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Egypt, Kenya, Brazil, Columbia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan involved. Most nations are from the Global South region where Cold War decolonization had such a lasting economic impact. Some countries have booming economies today while many others still struggle economically. During the Cold War, NAM pushed for nuclear arms reduction, economic equality, and a focus on internal-local versus external-global solutions to global hot spots in the Cold War. With the end of the Cold War in the 1990s and the continued impact of Russia, China, the Middle East states, and the rise of economic giants in India, Brazil, and Indonesia, NAM faces an uncertain future in terms of continued impact.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h4 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Knowledge Check:\u00a0<\/strong><\/h4>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nFrom civilizations to empires, from colonized to decolonized, and from world wars to \u201ccold wars\u201d! Just how <em>cold<\/em> were things after World War II?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Conflicting Influences &amp; Strategies\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why were Western leaders so concerned about the threat of Communism?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What do you think motivated the Soviets to try to expand their sphere of influence?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was the West's motivation different?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Do you think mutual assured destruction was a reasonable strategy?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When you review the list of members of the \"nuclear club\", are there any countries on it you weren't expecting to see?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why is it best to see not \"two\" but at least three blocs of power in the Cold War?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in Asia\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Could the Korean War have been avoided?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was Mao Zedong an effective leader of China?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Could the Vietnam War have been avoided?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The Middle East\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was the Pan-Arab movement a positive or negative development?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How do you think the history of U.S.-Iranian relations affects the nations' current relationship?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Latin America and The Cold War\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why might Populism have appealed to the people of Latin American nations?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was Mexico justified in nationalizing the country's oil industry.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What were the ulterior motives of Americans behind their choices to intervene in Latin America to fight communism?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What did Ernesto Guevara mean when he described the differences between his soldiers and the government troops?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The US\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How did anxiety about communism injure civil rights in America?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why was the United States so motivated to beat the U.S.S.R. in the space race?<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Do you think Mikhail Gorbachev intended to end the U.S.S.R.?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<em>This is an adaptation from <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.cuny.edu\/amodernworldsince1815\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\"The Modern World Since 1815\"<\/a>\u00a0by\u00a0<a>Dan Allosso and Tom Williford<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>\u00a0\/ A derivative from the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/modernworldhistory\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">original work<\/a>.<\/em>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Chapter Outline:<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>From civilizations to empires, from colonized to decolonized, and from world wars to \u201ccold wars\u201d! These trips back in time seem to always have some major chaotic event taking place\u2026 Unfortunately, this chapter will be no different. <em>Let\u2019s take a look at how <strong>cold<\/strong> the decades after World War II really were\u2026\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Conflicting Influences &amp; Strategies<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in Asia<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The Middle East<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Latin America and The Cold War<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The US<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Non-Alignment Movement and Bloc (Global South) in response to the Cold War<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr \/>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 462px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-326\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en-1.png\" alt=\"Cold War map\" width=\"462\" height=\"476\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">European military alliances during the Cold War<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>When we think of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, we typically imagine the thousands of nuclear missiles each nation pointed toward the other and of a clash of ideologies as communism and capitalism battled for world supremacy. A defining element of the Cold War was that it did not become a hot war. Neither the U.S. nor the U.S.S.R. launched attacks on the territories of the other. Instead, the superpowers supported or intervened in the conflicts of nations in their spheres of influence. To a great extent, the Cold War was a struggle by each superpower to extend its sphere of influence and block the other from doing the same. The Soviets and the Americans justified their actions in a variety of ways.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Creating a buffer-zone to protect the homeland.<\/li>\n<li>Defending like-minded governments against a different political or economic philosophy.\n<ul>\n<li>One side said it was protecting the world from the threat of totalitarian communist imperialism and the other said it was protecting the world from imperialist capitalism. Interestingly, both accused their antagonist of being an empire.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Never fighting directly, the two superpowers fought through proxy wars in the developing world over most of the next five decades.\u00a0 After World War II end&#8217;s, Eastern Europe and Asia would both be areas of contention between the U.S.S.R. and the \u201cWest\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Yalta Conference and the Fate of Post War Europe\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/tfbni6AamZY?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">The first Cold War challenge to post-war peace occurred in Greece, where communist and non-communist anti-Nazi partisans began fighting for control shortly after the Germans withdrew from their country in late 1944. When the war ended, this conflict soon turned into a full-blown civil war. However, Greece was outside of the Stalin&#8217;s sphere of influence. The British and Americans began supporting the beleaguered parliamentary monarchy against the communists, who were defeated in 1947. The conflict in Greece showcased the new <em><strong>&#8220;Truman Doctrine&#8221;<\/strong><\/em> of containment, under which the U.S. was willing to concede to Soviet domination of Eastern Europe, but would &#8220;contain&#8221; the spread of communist regimes in any other country.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Sir Winston Churchill \u2013 Sinews of Peace (Iron Curtain) Speech\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5QuSXZTo3Uo?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-638\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_.png\" alt=\"iron curtain map\" width=\"400\" height=\"428\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_.png 2880w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-280x300.png 280w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-957x1024.png 957w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-768x822.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-1436x1536.png 1436w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-1914x2048.png 1914w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-65x70.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-225x241.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Iron_Curtain_map.svg_-350x374.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Iron Curtain in black, with a black dot representing West Berlin. Warsaw Pact countries in red, NATO members in blue. Militarily neutral countries in gray. Yugoslavia, member country of the Non-Aligned Movement, in green.\u00a0 Communist Albania broke off contacts with the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, aligning itself with China after the Sino-Soviet split; it appears stripe-hatched with grey.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In 1946, former Prime Minister Winston Churchill visited President Harry Truman in his home state of Missouri and made a speech at Westminster College. Churchill said the situation in Europe felt as if Stalin had dropped an &#8220;iron curtain&#8221; separating East from West. It was an apt description: neither the Soviets nor the new communist regimes permitted free travel between the two sides. The division of. Europe into East and West was complicated by the Allied agreement to occupy defeated Germany in four sectors: U.S., British, French, and Soviet. The German capital Berlin was also divided into quarters by the four former allies, even though it was surrounded by Soviet-occupied East Germany. The division of Germany was completed when the western portion uniting in a federal republic, the <em>Bundesrepublik Deutschland <\/em>(GDR), in October 1949, complete with elections and multiple political parties. At the same time, East Germany became the <em>Deutsche Demokratische Republik<\/em> (DDR), a one-party communist satellite state of the Soviet Union.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"The Domino Theory, Containment and the Truman Doctrine\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/aIEAzmh2nfs?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 401px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-639\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"401\" height=\"268\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration.jpg 800w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration-300x201.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration-768x514.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753_Krefeld_Hungerwinter_Demonstration-350x234.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 401px) 100vw, 401px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">During the winter of 1947, thousands protest in West Germany against the disastrous food situation. The sign says, &#8220;We want coal, we want bread.&#8221;<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>To try to prevent a drift toward socialism in nations struggling with food shortages and rebuilding from the destruction of the war, the United States launched the <em><strong>Marshall Plan<\/strong><\/em> in 1948 to rebuild western Europe. The Soviets responded to the $15 billion aid program with an order that their satellite nations reject it, because the financial assistance came with the condition of economic cooperation that Stalin worried would make small nations like Yugoslavia dependent on western corporations. The United States was anxious to rebuild Europe as quickly as possible, not only to reopen markets for U.S. goods, but also to counter the influence of growing communist parties in Italy, France, and other Western European countries. U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall shipped food and other material aid, and provided financial support to any European country who requested it. The result was the largely capitalist rebuilding of Western Europe and West Germany, while Eastern Europe began industrializing by following Soviet-inspired <em><strong>Five-Year Plans<\/strong><\/em>.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-640 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_.png\" alt=\"NATO flag\" width=\"299\" height=\"224\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_.png 2880w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-1024x768.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-768x576.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-1536x1152.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-2048x1536.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Flag_of_NATO.svg_-350x263.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 299px) 100vw, 299px\" \/>European nations entered new military alliances along East-West lines as well. The superpowers adopted a policy of &#8220;<em>mutually assured destruction<\/em>&#8221; as a means of preventing a conflict which would almost certainly have destroyed most of the humans and probably much of life on the planet.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"The Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact | History\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/X1El1GVQVdc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-641\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958.jpg\" alt=\"Nikita Khrushchev\" width=\"400\" height=\"543\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958.jpg 1081w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958-221x300.jpg 221w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958-754x1024.jpg 754w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958-768x1043.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958-65x88.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958-225x306.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nikita-Khrushchev-TIME-1958-350x475.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nikita Khrushchev, Time Magazine&#8217;s Man of the Year for 1957<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Stalin died in 1953 and after a power struggle in the Politburo a new Premier, <em><strong>Nikita Khrushchev<\/strong><\/em>, took power in Moscow. Khrushchev distanced himself from what he called Stalin&#8217;s &#8220;cult of personality&#8221; and revealed the extent of Stalin\u2019s atrocities against perceived political enemies, which had led to the deaths of millions in purges, forced labor, and famine in the previous decades.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Joseph Stalin: Created Worst Man-made Famine in History - Fast Facts | History\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/_aF_sRXVdoU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Khrushchev announced a new Soviet foreign policy of &#8220;peaceful coexistence&#8221; with the West, pledging not to extend communism by invading other countries but creating a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, within the Soviet Bloc in Europe to counterbalance NATO.\u00a0 Khrushchev wanted Soviet communism to provide a higher standard of living for workers. Achieving this was difficult if the military budget was too large, so he sought to lessen tensions with the U.S. and its allies. But there were limits to Khrushchev&#8217;s &#8220;liberalism&#8221;. In 1956, d<span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">emocratic reforms in Hungary led to a possibility of spreading anti-Soviet dissent in neighboring communist countries under Moscow&#8217;s control. The Soviets and their Warsaw Pact satellite countries sent troops and tanks to repress any political changes in Hungary and Eastern Europe.<\/span><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>The Cold War in Asia<\/h3>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-6\" title=\"The Cold War in Asia: Crash Course US History #38\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Y2IcmLkuhG0?start=3&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-7\" title=\"The Price of Freedom - Korean War\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/1QZUsesFtCc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>An additional hotspot is Tibet, a Himalayan region historically dominated by the Chinese Empire that became an independent nation run by Buddhist monks during the chaotic early years of the Chinese Republic in the 1920s. <em><strong>Mao Zedong<\/strong><\/em> decided to reclaim Tibet for his new People&#8217;s Republic, and sent in troops in 1951. <span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><em><strong>Tenzin Gyatso<\/strong><\/em>, the Dalai Lama from that time is still the exiled spiritual leader of Tibet, and the \u201cFree Tibet\u201d movement is very active around the world.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 441px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-740\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/Jokhang_Temple_Lhasa_Tibet_China_\u897f\u85cf_\u62c9\u8428_\u5927\u662d\u5bfa_-_panoramio_6.jpg#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"Lhasa\" width=\"441\" height=\"331\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Looking across the square at Jokhang temple, Lhasa Tibet.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|114&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778129,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">Internally, Mao&#8217;s own totalitarian style had disastrous consequences for the Chinese.\u00a0 The communists had already begun land reform around 1946 in the parts of China they controlled, well before their final victory; the policy had gained them widespread support among the vast peasant population. With the nationalists out of the way, Mao\u2019s policy became more aggressive. <\/span><\/span>He called for the elimination of the landlord class of peasants and redistribution of the land more evenly. Unfortunately, when Mao said elimination, he meant it. Class-motivated mass killings of landlords continued for the next 30 years and estimates of the death tolls range from 14 million to 28 million.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-642\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4.jpg\" alt=\"Backyard furnaces\" width=\"400\" height=\"561\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4.jpg 428w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4-214x300.jpg 214w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4-65x91.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4-225x315.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Backyard_furnace4-350x491.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Backyard furnaces in China during the Great Leap Forward era produced very poor steel and a lot of pollution.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The purge of landlords was followed by the <em><strong>Great Leap Forward<\/strong><\/em>, an economic and social plan from 1958 to 1962 that collectivized agriculture and promoted industry. Mao set up 25,000 \u201cpeople\u2019s communes\u201d of 5,000 families each, which would be responsible for not only feeding themselves and their fellow Chinese citizens, but for providing surpluses to export. Mao insisted on keeping grain exports high in spite of poor harvests. The famine that resulted, known as the <em><strong>Great Chinese Famine<\/strong><\/em>, killed 55 million people, although a few million were apparently beaten to death and millions more committed suicide. In some regions of China, people resorted to cannibalism.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\">This disaster caused some prominent communist party members to question Mao&#8217;s leadership, but he maintained support in the army and blamed the famine on a lack of socialist commitment among the Chinese. Mao initiated his <em><strong>Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution<\/strong><\/em> in 1966, leading the military to recruit young people to reinforce Maoist ideology and purge remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. Schools and universities were closed, and Red Guard troops were encouraged to harass and even murder intellectuals. Educated people were beaten, terrorized, and banished to the countryside to be \u201creeducated\u201d by the peasants. The death toll of the cultural revolution is debated, but estimates range from 3 to 10 million.\u202f<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"eop\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|115&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;eop&quot;,469778129,&quot;eop&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">\u200b<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW9625155 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;134233117&quot;:true,&quot;134233118&quot;:true}\"> It delayed Chinese industrialization and modernization, and a generation of Chinese were deprived of an education.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 718px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-742\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/1967-11_1967\u5e74_\u6bdb\u6cfd\u4e1c\u63a5\u89c1\u7ea2\u536b\u5175\u6cb9\u753b-scaled.jpg#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" width=\"718\" height=\"384\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Propaganda oil painting of Mao and students holding up his &#8220;Little Red Book&#8221; during the Cultural Revolution, 1967.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>The Cold War in the Middle East<\/h3>\n<p>In the last chapter, we examined how the establishment of Israel in 1948 immediately led to a series of conflicts with its Arab neighbors. The defeat of Arab forces by Israel in 1949 led to a surge of Arab nationalism, led by Egyptian leader <em><strong>Gamal Abdul Nasser<\/strong><\/em>, who became head of state in 1954 after a military coup that ended the Egyptian monarchy. Nasser&#8217;s popularity was cemented when he took control of the<em> Suez Canal<\/em>, surrounded by Egypt but administered by the British and French, in 1956. In this crisis, t<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">he U.S. and U.S.S.R. forced Great Britain, France, and Israel to accept Egyptian control of the canal to avoid a larger conflict. Nasser became a hero for the Arab world, standing up to both the old colonial powers and what the Arabs saw as their creation, the new state of Israel.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 398px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-643\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954.jpg\" alt=\"Nasser greeted by crowds\" width=\"398\" height=\"352\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954.jpg 525w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954-300x265.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954-65x57.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954-225x199.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria_1954-350x309.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 398px) 100vw, 398px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nasser greeted by crowds in Alexandria one day after his announcement of the British withdrawal and<br \/>a failed assassination attempt against him, October 1954.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Nasser&#8217;s ruling model became an inspiration for many Arabs.\u00a0 Like <em><strong>Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk<\/strong><\/em> in Turkey in the 1920s, Nasser established a secular state dedicated to improving the lives of ordinary people. He largely separated religion and politics, supported government intervention in the economy to prevent foreign control, and provided more and better social services. Nasser, a former army colonel, also relied on the military as the most reliable and disciplined institution to maintain unity and order. This &#8220;Nasserism&#8221; became the ideology of the Ba&#8217;ath Party, formed in Syria and later in Iraq in the 1950s among military officers.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian leader skillfully took advantage of Cold War politics, playing the United States and the Soviet Union against each other in order to gain military and economic aid. The Soviets in particular supported the construction of the massive <em>Aswan Dam<\/em>, completed in stages by 1970 to control the flooding of the Nile while providing hydroelectric power to Egypt.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 517px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-644\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein.jpg\" alt=\"Nasser, Arafat, Hussein\" width=\"517\" height=\"280\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein.jpg 683w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein-300x163.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein-65x35.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein-225x122.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Nasser_brokering_ceasefire_with_Chairman_Arafat_and_King_Hussein-350x190.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 517px) 100vw, 517px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nasser (center) mediating an agreement between Yasser Arafat and Jordanian King Hussein, during the emergency Arab League summit, September 1970.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Nasser preached <em><strong>pan-Arabism<\/strong><\/em>, the goal that all Arabs should be united in one federated nation. Egypt and Syria briefly united under this model in the early 1960s, while after Nasser&#8217;s death, <span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Libya, Syria, and Iraq federated for a time in the\u00a0<\/span>1970s. The liberation of Algeria from France in 1962 was a moment of inspiration; another was the unification of Palestinians in the <em><strong>Palestine Liberation Organization<\/strong><\/em> in 1964, led by <em><strong>Yasser Arafat<\/strong> <\/em>and his Fatah Party. Hatred and resentment for Israel was (and remains) a powerful unifying factor in the region. Arab resistance and Cold War considerations led the U.S. to continue its support of Israel, which was supported by Jewish Americans, but also by Christian fundamentalist evangelicals, many of whom consider the reestablishment of Israel as the beginning of the apocalyptical End Times and the return of the Messiah. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union sought allies in the Middle East, which was much closer to its borders than to America. Russia still maintains its only naval base on the Mediterranean in Syria, dating from the time it began supporting the Ba&#8217;athi Assad family in that country in the late 1970s.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-645\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_.jpg\" alt=\"Mosaddegh with Truman\" width=\"400\" height=\"502\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_.jpg 1492w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-239x300.jpg 239w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-816x1024.jpg 816w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-768x964.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-1224x1536.jpg 1224w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-65x82.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-225x282.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/lossy-page1-2880px-President_Truman_and_Prime_Minister_Mohammad_Mossadegh_of_Iran.TIF_-350x439.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Prime Minister Mosaddegh with US President Truman in 1951<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The places Muslims and Christians most often find themselves in conflict are often where western Europeans and Americans have been very active in extracting natural resources from territories occupied by Muslims. Western oil companies in the Persian Gulf, for example, have had a decisive role in the relationships between the governments of Britain and the US and the people and governments of the region. For example, when the Iranian Prime Minister, <em><strong>Mohammad\u00a0Mosaddegh<\/strong><\/em>, decided to nationalize the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (now BP), Winston Churchill convinced Harry S. Truman that Mosaddegh had to go. Britain\u2019s MI-6 and the CIA organized a coup against the elected government of Iran and installed <em><strong>Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi<\/strong><\/em> as ruler of Iran in 1953 to insure a steady flow of oil out of Iran.\u00a0\u200b<\/p>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>\u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>Oil production in Iran rose quickly from less than a million barrels per day in the 1950s to 6 million barrels daily in the mid-1970s.\u00a0 However, the oil boom of the 1970s widened the gap between the rich and poor in Iran. The Shah began a policy of embracing western culture and westernizing Iran; conservative Muslims objected. The new consumer goods and cultural changes were generally available only to the richest Iranians, and were not accompanied by political liberalization. The Shah\u2019s secret police force, <em>SAVAK<\/em>, terrorized the population and routinely assassinated the Shah\u2019s critics. In 1977, SAVAK killed several Islamic leaders including <em><strong>Mostafa Khomeini<\/strong><\/em>, son of the ayatollah. \u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 628px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-646\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"armed protesters\" width=\"628\" height=\"414\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-300x198.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-1024x674.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-768x506.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-1536x1012.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-2048x1349.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-225x148.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/2880px-Enghlab_Iran-scaled-1-350x231.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 628px) 100vw, 628px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Armed protesters in front of a banner that says, &#8220;Long live anti-imperialism and democratic forces&#8221;.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>\u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>The outbreak of the Iranian Revolution caught the Shah by surprise. When the Muslim clergy announced an open-air prayer meeting on the annual holiday marking the end of Ramadan, the Shah panicked and declared martial law. 5,000 protesters took to the streets of Tehran. The army fired into the crowd, killing 64 people. The ayatollah Khomeini claimed 4,000 people had been killed and workers at Tehran\u2019s oil refineries and government workers declared a general strike that brought the economy to a standstill. By early December, more than 10% of the Iranian people were marching in anti-Shah demonstrations. The U.S. Government was hated for helping to install the Shah, and also for statements by President <em><strong>Jimmy Carter<\/strong> <\/em>supporting the Iranian Government and the \u201cspecial relationship\u201d the Shah had with the U.S.\u00a0 The ailing Shah abandoned Iran, eventually arriving for treatment in the United States, while Khomeini proclaimed a new Islamic Republic.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-8\" title=\"What Was the Iran Hostage Crisis? | History\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/E-WgNf6mn2k?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_647\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-647\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-647\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran.jpg\" alt=\"Iranian students\" width=\"400\" height=\"297\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran.jpg 1052w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran-300x223.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran-1024x761.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran-768x571.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran-65x48.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran-225x167.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Iran_hostage_crisis_-_Iraninan_students_comes_up_U.S._embassy_in_Tehran-350x260.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-647\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Iranian students storming the US Embassy in Tehran, November 1979.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">However, the new Iranian regime also confronted resistance from the Arab world, especially from Iraqi leader <em><strong>Saddam Hussein<\/strong><\/em>. Not only were the Iranians Persian, rather than Arab, most were also followers of Shia Islam, rather than the more common Sunni branch which is prevalent in the Arab world and among all Muslims. Although Shi&#8217;ites and Sunnis had lived in peace for centuries, Iran&#8217;s new clerical state was deemed a threat by its Arab neighbors, especially by the conservative Sunni regime in Saudi Arabia.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">Iraq, however, had its own particularities: not only were the specifically Shia holy sites located in Saddam Hussein&#8217;s country, but a majority of the Iraqis were Shi&#8217;ite Arabs as well. Hussein, meanwhile, was a Ba&#8217;athist, promoting Arab nationalism in a secular state ruled by his military. <\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|114&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778129,&quot;normaltextrun&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">In September 1980 he sent his armies into Iran <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun AdvancedProofingIssueV2 SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\">in an attempt to<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"normaltextrun\"> take advantage of what they supposed would be political chaos. Hussein claimed that he was protecting Arabs living in the Iranian border region, although conveniently, these areas also had vast oil deposits. The Iran-Iraq War lasted 8 years and, like the hostage crisis, helped consolidate the power of the Khomeini regime. The US, USSR, France, and many Arab countries provided support for Iraq, which used chemical weapons against Iranian military and civilian targets. The death toll has been estimated as 800,000 Iranians and up to 500,000 Iraqis.\u202f<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW7153591 BCX0\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"eop\" data-ccp-charstyle-defn=\"{&quot;ObjectId&quot;:&quot;803abc27-0ef7-4ccd-b6e8-2aee547bd3c9|115&quot;,&quot;Properties&quot;:[134233614,&quot;true&quot;,201340122,&quot;1&quot;,469775450,&quot;eop&quot;,469778129,&quot;eop&quot;,469778324,&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;],&quot;ClassId&quot;:1179649}\">\u200b<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 414px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-648\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1.jpg\" alt=\"An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the Iran\u2013Iraq War.\" width=\"414\" height=\"285\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1-300x206.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1-65x45.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1-225x155.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Chemical_weapon1-350x241.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 414px) 100vw, 414px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the Iran\u2013Iraq War.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">Hussein had gained nothing in the war but debt and demands for autonomy by non-Arab ethnic Kurds in northern Iraq; he responded with chemical attacks on civilian Kurdish populations. In 1990, the Iraqi dictator then decided to incorporate Kuwait into his nation, claiming that it had historically been part of Mesopotamia (which was plausible, given the absurd way the British had drawn national boundaries after World War I). The United Nations, led by the U.S. pushed Hussein out of Kuwait. Not even the Saudis wanted the Iraqi dictator to take the tiny kingdom, which despite its size had as much oil as Iraq. However, although it decimated Hussein&#8217;s retreating army on the infamous &#8220;<em>Highway of Death<\/em>&#8220;, the coalition stopped short of toppling Hussein himself, which would have consequences over the next two decades.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Latin America and the Cold War<\/h3>\n<p>The twentieth century began in Latin America with the <em>Mexican Revolution<\/em>, when <span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">Pancho Villa in northern Mexico and Emiliano Zapata in southern Mexico created an opportunity for new liberal forces led by Alvaro Obregon. After defeating Villa on the battlefield, Obregon held a constitutional convention in 1917 which produced a document that embraced agrarian reform, an eight-hour work day and the right to organize labor unions; and a declaration that the subsoil belongs to the state in the name of the people. The was a return to the tradition of the Spanish Empire that subsurface minerals belonged to the people or to the state, rather than to individuals or companies. These ideas were inspirational for the rest of Latin America and even other parts of the world: the Mexican Revolution predated the Bolshevik Revolution by several months.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_754\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-754\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-754\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/2880px-Logo_Petro\u0301leos_Mexicanos.svg_.png#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"PEMEX Logo\" width=\"400\" height=\"153\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-754\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Logo of Petr\u00f3leos Mexicanos, the state-owned oil company established by C\u00e1rdenas. The motto means, &#8220;For the rescue of sovereignty&#8221;.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>It took a generation for Mexico to realize this goal, but in the 1930s, under President <em><strong>L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas<\/strong><\/em>, land reform was implemented that brought back indigenous communal landholdings, broken up during the Diaz period. And in 1938, C\u00e1rdenas nationalized Mexican oil, taking over leases given to U.S. and British oil companies. The American president, <em><strong>Franklin Roosevelt<\/strong><\/em>, who had begun a &#8220;Good Neighbor Policy&#8221; toward Latin America when he took office, to emphasize trade and cooperation rather than military force, did not intervene when oil companies objected. Britain acquiesced in order to assure Mexican support in what everyone understood would soon be the next world war.<\/p>\n<p>C\u00e1rdenas was part of a wave of populist heads of state in Latin America, charismatic leaders who tried to address the needs of &#8220;the people,&#8221; which by the 1930s and 1940s included rural peasants as well as the urban working class. Latin American Populism also attracted a rising professional middle class, shut out of political power by traditional oligarchies. In Argentina, this new middle class included first-generation immigrants from Europe who supported a new Radical Party in the first decades of the twentieth century. Argentina was second only to the United States as an immigration choice for impoverished Europeans, particularly Italians, Germans, and Eastern European Jews. In other cases, army officers who had received professional training either at home or abroad by European military missions felt that the oligarchs were insufficiently patriotic and needed to be replaced.<\/p>\n<p>The populists also supported nationalist economic measures, including p<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">olicies of import substitution industrialization, land reform, and efforts to reduce dependency on international markets for their mining or agricultural goods. The crisis of the Great Depression emphasized the importance of building independent domestic economies and instituting education, housing, and infrastructure improvements for all of the people. The global war against fascism inspired many to embrace democracy and overthrow long-standing military regimes, like in Guatemala, Venezuela, and Cuba;\u00a0 although these attempts at democratic practices were frequently short-lived.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 603px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-649\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg\" alt=\"Vargas and Roosevelt\" width=\"603\" height=\"427\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg 632w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt-300x212.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt-65x46.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt-225x159.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Vargas_e_Roosevelt-350x248.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 603px) 100vw, 603px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brazilian President Get\u00falio Vargas (left) and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt (right) in 1936<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div>\n<p>Two of the most notable populist leaders are also examples of civilian and military versions of populism: <em><strong>Get\u00falio Vargas of Brazil and Juan Per\u00f3n of Argentina<\/strong><\/em>. Vargas was an opposition candidate who lost in a fraudulent election to an oligarchy-backed candidate in 1930; a brief uprising made him president. He skillfully faced down a separatist revolt in the wealthy coffee state of Sao Paulo, but after embracing a degree of liberal democracy, in 1937 Vargas established an authoritarian state in order to prevent communist-supported leftists being elected. However, he also rooted out a new fascist movement and disbanded it as well, setting himself up to accept U.S. aid and support the Allies in World War II. Brazil was the only nation in Latin America to send troops to fight alongside the Allies in Europe. Vargas stepped down in 1945, but ran again for president in 1950 and was reelected.<\/p>\n<p>Per\u00f3n, on the other hand, was an army officer who had served as a military attache in Italy in the 1930s, witnessing up close the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini. Argentina at the time was governed by politicians elected through fraud that suppressed calls for\u00a0 reform by the Radical Party. In 1943, in the midst of World War II, the military overthrew the corrupt regime, instituting a government that they felt was more dignified and responded more directly to the people. Juan Per\u00f3n, a key player in the coup, chose to become the Minister of Labor. By guaranteeing labor law and favoring the workers in negotiations, he became popular among the urban masses in Buenos Aires. Although the military regime grew nervous about his growing popularity and had Per\u00f3n arrested, the workers came to his aid. He was released and was elected president of Argentina in 1946.<\/p>\n<p>Per\u00f3n benefited from a postwar economic boom in Argentina. He could promise and deliver on higher wages, better living and working conditions, and vacations for workers as tax revenues rolled in because of high international prices for Argentine wheat and beef. In the context of the Cold War, Per\u00f3n proclaimed that he represented a &#8220;third way&#8221; between unfettered capitalism and totalitarian communism. Per\u00f3n claimed that his government improved the lives of Argentinians without having to take sides in the superpower conflict. This made him particularly annoying to the United States, which often had to face Argentine opposition at regional conferences.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_755\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-755\" style=\"width: 298px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-755\" src=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/607\/2019\/07\/Eva_Duarte_de_Pero\u0301n_en_Espan\u0303a.jpg#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" width=\"298\" height=\"390\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-755\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">President Juan Per\u00f3n and his wife, &#8220;Evita&#8221;, arrive in Madrid.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Per\u00f3n bet on never-ending good times, especially when it seemed that the Korean War might lead to a World War III in which Argentina would benefit. However, shortly after he was reelected in 1952, Per\u00f3n&#8217;s popular wife, Eva Duarte, died of ovarian cancer at age 33. Hundreds of thousands attended her funeral and a cult of \u201cSanta Evita\u201d quickly took hold. The Argentine economy began to suffer as the world recovered from World War II and Argentina faced competition for its wheat and beef in the international market. Like Vargas, Per\u00f3n also faced inflation and political<span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\"> scandals. A bitter fight with the Catholic Church led to Per\u00f3n&#8217;s ouster by the military in 1955 and the suppression of the Peronist movement until Peron was invited back from exile to be reelected president in 1973.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Although the United States congratulated itself that it had replaced blatant military intervention and \u201cdollar diplomacy\u201d with a \u201cGood Neighbor Policy\u201d under Franklin Roosevelt, nations like Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras were still thoroughly dominated by the United Fruit Company (UFC); still Banana Republics.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-9\" title=\"The dark history of bananas - John Soluri\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/esvycD1O3cM?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>After World War II, the Dulles brothers became leaders in developing U.S. foreign policy in Latin America. John Foster Dulles was a corporate lawyer who had helped negotiate huge land giveaways to UFC by the governments of Guatemala and Honduras. After serving as a Senator from New York, Dulles was appointed secretary of State by Dwight Eisenhower in 1953. His brother Allen Dulles was on UFC\u2019s board of directors before he served as President Eisenhower\u2019s CIA Director.<\/p>\n<p>In 1954 the democratically-elected government of Guatemala began talking about seizing some of the vast tracts of land the United Fruit Company had acquired but was not using. The government planned to buy back the land from UFC and redistribute it to the poor. The Dulles brothers accused the Guatemalan government of having close ties with the Soviets and sent in the CIA to overthrow it in a military coup. Guatemalans resisted the new regime and the country fell into a civil war that lasted from 1960 to 1996 and killed up to 200,000 people. \u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 14pt;\">\u200b<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_651\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-651\" style=\"width: 514px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-650\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg\" alt=\"Eisenhower and Dulles\" width=\"514\" height=\"404\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg 600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956-300x236.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956-65x51.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956-225x177.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956-350x275.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 514px) 100vw, 514px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-651\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">President Dwight Eisenhower with John Foster Dulles, 1956.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One of the key elements of Latin America\u2019s relationship with the outside world seems to be the question of revolution and the threat nations like the U.S. claimed to fear, of socialist, anti-capitalist movements in the Western Hemisphere. In many cases the anti-capitalism expressed by Latin Americans was actually resistance to what they perceived as economic imperialism by nations like the U.S., which regularly defended American-based corporations that operated freely in their nations and often intervened in their politics.<\/p>\n<p>The conflict over land reform in Guatemala was misrepresented by the Dulles brothers. The Guatemalan government offered UFC a price for the lands it took back based on the values claimed in the corporation\u2019s tax filings. It may have been an open secret that UFC was defrauding the Guatemalan government, but the government was well within its rights to call that bluff. A truly communist government determined to eliminate capitalism in Guatemala might simply have claimed UFC had acquired the lands illegally and taken them with no offer of compensation. \u200b<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_651\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-651\" style=\"width: 399px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-651\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952.jpg\" alt=\"Guevara with Alberto Granado\" width=\"399\" height=\"272\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952.jpg 592w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952-300x205.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952-65x44.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952-225x154.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheOnRaft1952-350x239.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 399px) 100vw, 399px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-651\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Guevara (right) with Alberto Granado (left) in June 1952 on the Amazon River aboard their wooden raft, which was a gift from the lepers whom they had treated during their motorcycle journey.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Many idealists in Latin America and elsewhere were radicalized by the violence nations such as the United States approved or initiated to protect the interests of corporations but justified as defenses of democracy. An example of this was the experience of <em><strong>Ernesto \u201cChe\u201d Guevara<\/strong><\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>After witnessing the revolutionary change in Bolivia, Guevara went to Guatemala and watched a similar attempt crushed by imperialist armies operating to protect corporate profits. This experience and his romance with a Peruvian Marxist economist named <em><strong>Hilda Gadea Acosta<\/strong><\/em>, who he married in 1955, radicalized Che. When he was placed on an enemies list by the new Guatemalan regime, Guevara escaped to Mexico where he met <em><strong>Ra\u00fal and Fidel Castro<\/strong><\/em>, who were in exile there following a failed revolutionary coup in Cuba.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_652\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-652\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-652\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel.jpg\" alt=\"Che and Fidel\" width=\"400\" height=\"535\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel.jpg 1197w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-224x300.jpg 224w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-766x1024.jpg 766w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-768x1027.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-1149x1536.jpg 1149w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-65x87.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-225x301.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/CheyFidel-350x468.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-652\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, 1961.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Guevara became an ally of the Castro&#8217;s in June 1955 and joined the revolution. About 80 revolutionaries arrived in late November 1956 on the eastern tip of Cuba, but their numbers were reduced to about 20 in their first skirmish with Fulgencio Battista\u2019s army. The survivors fled into the Sierra Maestra mountains and enlisted peasants into a guerilla army that harried the Cuban army for the next two years. In 1958, Guevara explained the guerillas\u2019 success: \u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>\u202f\u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<blockquote><p>\u201cThe enemy soldier in the Cuban example which at present concerns us, is the junior partner of the dictator; he is the man who gets the last crumb left by a long line of profiteers that begins in\u00a0Wall Street\u00a0and ends with him. He is disposed to defend his privileges, but he is disposed to defend them only to the degree that they are important to him. His salary and his pension are worth some suffering and some dangers, but they are never worth his life. If the price of maintaining them will cost it, he is better off giving them up; that is to say, withdrawing from the face of the\u00a0guerrilla danger.\u201d\u200b<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>\u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>The Cold War was played out mostly through proxy wars: regional conflicts like the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Russia-Afghanistan War where the combatants were provisioned, supported, and sometimes joined by troops from the superpowers. Occasionally, the heat level increased and the U.S. and U.S.S.R. barely avoided direct conflict. One of those times was during the <em><strong>Cuban Missile Crisis<\/strong><\/em>. The western bloc had placed ICBM missiles in Italy and Turkey (a member of NATO) under President Eisenhower&#8217;s direction in the late 1950s. These missiles could hit the U.S.S.R. capital of Moscow (Moskva) and in response the U.S.S.R. with its ally Fidel Castro, placed missiles in Cuba capable of hitting the mainland U.S. including Washington D.C. The tense standoff brought the world the closest it has been to nuclear war in 1962. Fortunately, both sides deescalated the conflict under the leadership of U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Union Premier Nikita Kruschev. Interestingly, Kruschev had taken over after the death of Stalin in 1953, but would be pushed out of power in 1964, partly due to the Turkish-Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy would fare even worse, assassinated in 1963 in an assassination allegedly by Lee Harvey Oswald, who had once defected from the United States to the Soviet Union. The assassination had all sorts of Cold War connections and overtones to it that could have led to further conflict between the bloc powers, yet once again, cooler heads prevailed with Lyndon Johnson becoming president and the Soviet Union claiming no involvement in the assassination. Assassinations and regime overthrows were the norm in the Cold War, often engineered by one Cold War bloc power or the other.\u00a0 The events of the Cuban Revolution, the Missile Crisis, the President Kennedy assassination, and Krushchev losing power can all be viewed in that larger context of the game of power for the two bloc empires and their colonial reach through economics, assassination, regime change, and more.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-10\" title=\"The history of the Cuban Missile Crisis - Matthew A. Jordan\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/bwWW3sbk4EU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>Fidel Castro continued as Cuban president until 2008 when his brother Raul became President. Fidel died in 2016 and Raul handed over the Presidency in 2018, although he remained the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba until his retirement in 2021. Yet, what became of Che?<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-11\" title=\"Che Guevara: The Communist Solution - Fast Facts | History\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Q7_kHRytn3k?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_653\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-653\" style=\"width: 399px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-653\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2.jpg\" alt=\"Hugo Ch\u00e1vez\" width=\"399\" height=\"271\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2.jpg 1659w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-300x204.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-1024x696.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-768x522.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-1536x1044.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-65x44.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-225x153.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Operemm-2-350x238.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 399px) 100vw, 399px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-653\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Venezuelan President Hugo Ch\u00e1vez relied on oil revenue to run programs for the poor, but failed to diversify his economy.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Twentieth-century cold-war conflicts involving Oil have not been limited to the Persian Gulf. Development of Venezuela\u2019s oil resources, thought to be at least a fifth of known global reserves, began in the 1910s when the country\u2019s president granted concessions to his friends to explore, drill, and refine oil. These concessions were quickly sold to foreign oil companies. In 1941 a reform government gained power and passed the Hydrocarbons Law of 1943 under which the government would receive 50% of the profits of the oil industry. The outbreak of World War II had increased demand for oil, and the Venezuelan government granted a series of new concessions that were snapped up in spite of the 50% tax. The postwar explosion of automobile ownership in the U.S. continued to drive demand, and Venezuelan production increased. Venezuela bought the Cities Service company and CITGO gas became a key export of Venezuela. In 1976, the government nationalized the oil industry. Oil was a mixed blessing for Venezuela, providing high levels of revenue to support government programs benefitting the people; but also preventing Venezuelan industry from diversifying. However, the CITGO sign became a welcome sight for many New Englanders, as the company has donated millions of gallons of home heating oil to help hundreds of thousands of families in the Northeastern United States over several decades. \u200b<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<p>During the 1950s and 1960s colonialism slowly ended in Africa, although not without major atrocities like the Belgian Congo Civil War (1976-1992) or the British oppression of the Kikuyu in Kenya in a conflict the British still lost, despite having overwhelming force on their side. In South Africa, the white government of F. W. De Klerk, who became president in 1989, finally began to dismantle the apartheid system that had oppressed the black majority for generations. Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) was a member of a royal native family of the Xhosa people who became a lawyer in Johannesburg and became active in politics after the white government began instituting apartheid policies in the 1940s. Apartheid was a system of racial segregation that completely separated the black majority from the white rulers and deprived them of political and civil rights. Mandela became president of the African National Congress (ANC), an organization established in 1912 to defend the rights of native Africans and mixed-race people in South Africa. \u00a0He was arrested in 1956 for sedition and treason. Despite a commitment to non-violence, Mandela began leading acts of sabotage against government properties in 1961 and was convicted in 1962 and sentenced to life in prison.\u00a0\u00a0\u200b<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_654\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-654\" style=\"width: 399px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-654\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg\" alt=\"De Klerk and Mandela\" width=\"399\" height=\"344\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg 715w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992-300x258.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992-65x56.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992-225x194.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992-350x302.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 399px) 100vw, 399px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-654\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Frederik de Klerk and Nelson Mandela shake hands at the Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum in 1992.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>De Klerk visited Nelson Mandela in prison a few months after becoming President and spoke with him for 3 hours. In 1990, De Klerk called for a new Constitution and shut down South Africa\u2019s nuclear weapons program. Then he freed Mandela after 27 years as a political prisoner and lifted the ban on the ANC operating as a political party. After losing the presidential election to him in 1994, De Klerk served as one of Mandela\u2019s Deputy Presidents from 1994-6. Mandela served as president for a single term and then stepped down. He focused on reconciliation while in office and in his retirement devoted himself to combatting poverty and AIDS.\u00a0\u00a0\u200b<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Cold War in the US<\/h3>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-12\" title=\"The Cold War: Crash Course US History #37\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/9C72ISMF_D0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-655\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"J. Edgar Hoover\" width=\"400\" height=\"504\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1.jpg 2029w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-238x300.jpg 238w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-812x1024.jpg 812w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-768x969.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-1217x1536.jpg 1217w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-1623x2048.jpg 1623w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-65x82.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-225x284.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC-scaled-1-350x442.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">J. Edgar Hoover, head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1961.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>McCarthyism was part of a widespread anticommunist propaganda campaign directed at Cold War America by the U.S. government. In 1956, Hoover began a counterintelligence program, <em><strong>COINTELPRO<\/strong><\/em>, to disrupt the <em><strong>Communist Party of the USA<\/strong><\/em> (CPUSA). The scope of Hoover\u2019s suspicions and COINTELPRO\u2019s targets grew to include civil rights groups, feminists, environmentalists, Native American activists, and anti-war protestors before the program\u2019s dissolution in 1971. The program\u2019s domestic espionage and psychological warfare tactics were widely criticized. Many believed the FBI had greatly overstepped its authority; some even accused COINTELPRO of planning the assassinations of some of the program\u2019s targets.<\/p>\n<p>In Congress, the <em><strong>House Un-American Activities Committe<\/strong><strong>e<\/strong><strong> (HUAC)<\/strong><\/em> and the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations held over a hundred investigations and hearings on communist influence in American society between 1949 and 1954. The <em><strong>Internal Security Act<\/strong><\/em>, passed by Congress in September 1950, required all \u201ccommunist organizations\u201d to register with the government, gave the government greater powers to investigate sedition, and made it possible to prevent suspected individuals from gaining or keeping their citizenship. McCarthy&#8217;s and Hoover&#8217;s witch-hunts hurled accusations and ruined careers less on people&#8217;s communist sentiments and more on their opposition to civil rights and anti-war protestors.<\/p>\n<p>The arms race was not only about nuclear technology, but also a contest to improve the distance and accuracy of missiles which could carry a nuclear load. The missile race indirectly led to the space race, as both the U.S. and the Soviets initiated programs for space exploration. <span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">Germany\u2019s top rocket scientist, <em><strong>Wernher von Braun<\/strong><\/em>, surrendered to U.S. troops and eventually became the leader of the American space program. About 1,600 German scientists and engineers found their way into the American program. The Soviet Union\u2019s program was managed by Red Army colonel <em><strong>Sergei Korolev<\/strong><\/em>, although the Soviet program also had about 2,000 Germans. Both engineering teams worked to adapt German rocket technology to create an <em>intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)<\/em> that could carry the new nuclear weapons.\u00a0 <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_656\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-656\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Apollo 11\" width=\"235\" height=\"679\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1.jpg 886w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-104x300.jpg 104w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-354x1024.jpg 354w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-768x2219.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-532x1536.jpg 532w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-709x2048.jpg 709w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-65x188.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-225x650.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2024\/10\/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630-scaled-1-350x1011.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 235px) 100vw, 235px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Apollo 11 Saturn V rocket lifts off, July 16, 1969.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">The Soviets achieved success in the missile race first. They even used the ICBM launch vehicle in October 1957, to send Sputnik, the world\u2019s first human-made satellite, into orbit. It was a decisive technological victory, and the Soviet propaganda ministry took full advantage of the opportunity to begin a space race while at the same time warning the U.S. that it could deliver nuclear weapons to American targets.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The U.S. government rushed to perfect its own ICBM technology and in 1958 established the <em><strong>National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)<\/strong><\/em> to launch satellites and astronauts into space. While the American space program struggled, the Soviet Union\u2019s Luna 2 capsule became the first human-made object to touch the moon in September 1959. Then the U.S.S.R. successfully launched a pair of dogs (Belka and Strelka) into orbit and returned them to Earth alive in August 1960 while the American Mercury program languished behind schedule. Cosmonaut <em><strong>Yuri Gagarin<\/strong><\/em> was launched into orbit on April 12, 1961. American astronaut <em><strong>Alan Shepard<\/strong><\/em> accomplished a suborbital flight in the Freedom 7 capsule on May 5. The United States had been embarrassed, and <em><strong>John Kennedy<\/strong><\/em> used America\u2019s frustration over early losses in the \u201cspace race\u201d to bolster funding for a manned moon landing, which succeeded on July 20, 1969.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p>The Cold War ended with the 80s.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Between 1989 and 1991, the Soviet system collapsed and Russia lost control of its Eastern European satellites.<\/li>\n<li>In October 1989, East Germany\u2019s longtime leader, Erich Honecker, resigned. <em>Erich Honecker had been instrumental in building the Berlin Wall in 1961.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Tearing down the wall and reunifying Germany in 1990 were milestones in the end of the Cold War.<\/li>\n<li>On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as President of the USSR in a televised speech, and handed over the Soviet nuclear codes to Yeltsin. The following day, the U.S.S.R. was dissolved and Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev\u2019s office at the Kremlin.\u00a0\u00a0\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\u200bThe collapse of the Soviet Union left the US as the world\u2019s only superpower. This was not welcome news to some of the officials of the old U.S.S.R. We\u2019ll look at how these people consolidated their power in the new Russia when we discuss Globalization in the next chapter.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-13\" title=\"The fall of the Berlin Wall\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/RIUd5Cc3S6I?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Non-Alignment Movement of the Global South in Response to the Cold War<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_717\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-717\" style=\"width: 800px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-717\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_.png\" alt=\"Map of Non-Aligned Movement nations as of 2020.\" width=\"800\" height=\"407\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_.png 800w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_-300x153.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_-768x391.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_-65x33.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_-225x114.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/211\/2019\/07\/Map_of_NAM_Members_and_Observer_states.svg_-350x178.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-717\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of NAM or Non-Aligned Movement Nations. Member nations are in dark blue, the observer nations are in light blue.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">Not all nations were allied with the Cold War eastern and western blocs of power. Originally the eastern or communist bloc centered on the U.S.S.R.\/China bloc until that bloc split in the 1970s partly due to U.S. intervention from President Nixon. The western or capitalist bloc centered on the United States and European NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) members but the rise of capitalist Japan in the 1980s and other nations also altered the western bloc of power.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14.0pt;\">In response to this bipartite model of global power, a group of Non-Aligned Movement nations met at the Africa-Asia conference in 1955 and by 1961 had emerged officially as NAM or a third bloc of power in the Cold War with key nations such as India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Egypt, Kenya, Brazil, Columbia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan involved. Most nations are from the Global South region where Cold War decolonization had such a lasting economic impact. Some countries have booming economies today while many others still struggle economically. During the Cold War, NAM pushed for nuclear arms reduction, economic equality, and a focus on internal-local versus external-global solutions to global hot spots in the Cold War. With the end of the Cold War in the 1990s and the continued impact of Russia, China, the Middle East states, and the rise of economic giants in India, Brazil, and Indonesia, NAM faces an uncertain future in terms of continued impact.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h4 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Knowledge Check:\u00a0<\/strong><\/h4>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>From civilizations to empires, from colonized to decolonized, and from world wars to \u201ccold wars\u201d! Just how <em>cold<\/em> were things after World War II?<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Conflicting Influences &amp; Strategies\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why were Western leaders so concerned about the threat of Communism?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What do you think motivated the Soviets to try to expand their sphere of influence?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was the West&#8217;s motivation different?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Do you think mutual assured destruction was a reasonable strategy?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When you review the list of members of the &#8220;nuclear club&#8221;, are there any countries on it you weren&#8217;t expecting to see?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why is it best to see not &#8220;two&#8221; but at least three blocs of power in the Cold War?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in Asia\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Could the Korean War have been avoided?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was Mao Zedong an effective leader of China?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Could the Vietnam War have been avoided?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The Middle East\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was the Pan-Arab movement a positive or negative development?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How do you think the history of U.S.-Iranian relations affects the nations&#8217; current relationship?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">Latin America and The Cold War\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why might Populism have appealed to the people of Latin American nations?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Was Mexico justified in nationalizing the country&#8217;s oil industry.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What were the ulterior motives of Americans behind their choices to intervene in Latin America to fight communism?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What did Ernesto Guevara mean when he described the differences between his soldiers and the government troops?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 600;\">The Cold War in The US\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How did anxiety about communism injure civil rights in America?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why was the United States so motivated to beat the U.S.S.R. in the space race?<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Do you think Mikhail Gorbachev intended to end the U.S.S.R.?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr \/>\n<p><em>This is an adaptation from <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.cuny.edu\/amodernworldsince1815\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">&#8220;The Modern World Since 1815&#8221;<\/a>\u00a0by\u00a0<a>Dan Allosso and Tom Williford<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>\u00a0\/ A derivative from the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/mlpp.pressbooks.pub\/modernworldhistory\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">original work<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":33,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["mahalia-mehu"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[63],"license":[56],"class_list":["post-657","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-mahalia-mehu","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":427,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/657","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/33"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/657\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":824,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/657\/revisions\/824"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/427"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/657\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=657"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=657"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=657"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ccconline.org\/20thcenturyworldhis\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=657"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}